“…Although schools may be able to act as a buffer against neighborhood crime and disorder, the effectiveness of many commonly used school safety strategies has been questioned (Fuller, 2009; Harding, 2009; Johnson, 2009; Skiba & Rausch, 2006). For example, heavy security and monitoring on school campuses as well as zero-tolerance policies mandating expulsion for offenses committed on school grounds may raise fear and deepen inequities for the most vulnerable students (Mowen, Brent, & Kupchik, 2016; Schreck & Miller, 2003). By contrast, other interventions focusing on positive school climate, restorative justice programs, mental health services, and community partnerships seem to have had more promising results (Cornell & Mayer, 2010; Kutsyuruba et al, 2015; Skiba et al, 2006; Steinberg et al, 2011).…”