Scarcity of Rare Earth Elements

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs) are important for green and a large variety of high-tech technologies and are, therefore, in high demand. As a result, supply with REEs is likely to be disrupted (the degree of depends on the REE) in the near future. The 17 REEs are divided into heavy and light REEs. Other critical elements besides REEs, identified by the European Commission, are also becoming less easily available. Although there is no deficiency in the earth's crust of rare earth oxides, the economic accessibility is limited. The increased demand for REEs, the decreasing export from China, and geopolitical concerns on availability contributed to the (re)opening of mines in Australia and the USA and other mines are slow to follow. As a result, short supply of particularly terbium, dysprosium, praseodymium, and neodymium is expected to be problematic for at least the short term, also because they cannot be substituted. Recycling REEs from electronic waste would be a solution, but so far there are hardly any established REE recycling methods. Decreasing the dependency on REEs, for example, by identifying possible replacements or increasing their efficient use, represents another possibility.

Novel approach to recover cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion battery using oxalic acid

“…The increasing applications are resulting in boosting demand of resources such as energy metals. Plenty of resources have been rapidly transferred from natural mineral to urban mine, which can cause the accelerated depletion of critical materials such as lithium and cobalt [3][4][5][6]. Meanwhile, a huge amount of spent LIBs has been generated worldwide.…”

Efficient and tuneable photoluminescent boehmite hybrid nanoplates lacking metal activator centres for single-phase white LEDs

“…For these reasons, an ultraviolet-pumped WLED based on a single layer of a full-colour-emitting phosphor would be highly advantageous, promising very small colour variations, high CRI and low cost 5,6,[8][9][10][11][12][13]18,21,22 . Nevertheless, actual downconverting phosphors involves the doping or co-doping of inorganic compounds mostly with lanthanide ions such as europium(III) 5,6,9,13,18,21,22 , whose scarcity [23][24][25] and supply disruption is a noticeable concern.…”

From a critical review to a conceptual framework for integrating the criticality of resources into Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment

“…27 supply and demand (Deboer and Lammertsma, 2013). This situation may induce a serious problem for a wide application of low-carbon technologies such as hybrid cars and wind mills, where REs are used (UNEP, 2009).…”

“…This situation may induce a serious problem for a wide application of low-carbon technologies such as hybrid cars and wind mills, where REs are used (UNEP, 2009). Such a limit on the accessibility of resources due to geopolitical concerns has resulted in the reopening of mines outside China, relocating of global firms to China and also enhance the recyclability of REs (Deboer and Lammertsma, 2013).…”