Scanning electron microscopy for differentiating charred endocarps of Rhus/Toxicodendron species and tracking the use of the lacquer tree and Asian poison ivy in Japanese prehistory

Current developments and future directions in archaeological science

“…Alongside isotopic analysis, the quantification of trace elements has also become increasingly common in archaeology, and the use of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry have grown considerably in the field ( 40 , 41 ), as have studies employing scanning electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy in elemental analysis. These techniques are often combined to maximize applications, ranging from studying surface modifications of archaeological ceramics to identifying waterlogged wood anatomy, to identifying the earliest uses of lacquer ( 42 – 44 ). The development of relatively inexpensive portable XRF (pXRF) units has facilitated archaeologists’ capacity to nondestructively generate elemental data from artifacts and raw materials in a unique way.…”

Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze (Japanese wax tree): A review on its phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity

“…T. succedaneum is native to Eastern Asia and distributed in Japan, Korea, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Pakistan, and Oceania, with more occurrences in the lowland and hill forests [3][4][5] . It was believed that T. succedaneum originated from the mainland of Japan, with several controversies, such as being introduced from China/continental Asia to Japan.…”

“…Rhus and Toxicodendron are widespread genera in subtropics and temperate regions with many populations in South Africa, East Asia, and North America 2-3 . However, Toxicodendron has been considered a separate genus with unique features like the presence of toxic resins, absence of red-colored glandular hairs on pedicels, axillary fruits, and much smaller pollen grains than the taxa of Rhus 4 .…”