SARS-CoV-2: From Structure to Pathology, Host Immune Response and Therapeutic Management

Abstract

Coronaviruses are large, enveloped viruses with a single-stranded RNA genome, infecting both humans and a wide range of wild and domestic animals. SARS-CoV-2, the agent of the COVID-19 pandemic, has 80% sequence homology with SARS-CoV-1 and 96–98% homology with coronaviruses isolated from bats. The spread of infection is favored by prolonged exposure to high densities of aerosols indoors. Current studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 is much more stable than other coronaviruses and viral respiratory pathogens. The severe forms of infection are associated with several risk factors, including advanced age, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, obesity, chronic inflammatory or autoimmune disease, and other preexisting infectious diseases, all having in common the pre-existence of a pro-inflammatory condition. Consequently, it is essential to understand the relationship between the inflammatory process and the specific immune response in SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this review, we present a general characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 virus (origin, sensitivity to chemical and physical factors, multiplication cycle, genetic variability), the molecular mechanisms of COVID-19 pathology, the host immune response and discuss how the inflammatory conditions associated with different diseases could increase the risk of COVID-19. Last, but not least, we briefly review the SARS-CoV-2 diagnostics, pharmacology, and future approaches toward vaccine development.

How Do Inflammatory Mediators, Immune Response and Air Pollution Contribute to COVID-19 Disease Severity? A Lesson to Learn

“…ammation and Immune Response-Molecular Cross-Talk iral infections are sometimes responsible for concomitant intestinal and upper tory airway pathological manifestations, and cooling and conjunctivitis symptoms o possible [7,91]. Both coronaviruses causing SARS in humans, SARS-CoV-1 and CoV-2, share the ACE2 cellular receptor interaction with the spike glycoprotein as ns of cellular entry and are equally stable and infectious as aerosols [7]. uring the pandemic, what is surprising and has put health management in an ency condition are the extent of the symptoms, which can easily progressively n and become complicated, and the high contagiousness of SARS-CoV-2.…”

“…Viral infections are sometimes responsible for concomitant intestinal and upper respiratory airway pathological manifestations, and cooling and conjunctivitis symptoms are also possible [7,91]. Both coronaviruses causing SARS in humans, SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2, share the ACE2 cellular receptor interaction with the spike glycoprotein as a means of cellular entry and are equally stable and infectious as aerosols [7].…”

“…SARS-CoV-2 targets host cells through the viral structural spike protein that binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. The spike protein is most prominent on the virion surface and confers the specific appearance of a corona [7]. The type 2 transmembrane serine protease (TMPRSS2), present in the host cell, promotes viral uptake by cleaving ACE2 and activating the SARS-CoV-2 S protein, which mediates coronavirus entry into host cells.…”

The Role of Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) in SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Review

“…Moreover, it has been reported that humoral immune responses are similar to other virus infections, and are associated with specific IgM and IgG and synthesis. At the beginning of the infection, B cells elicit a response against the nucleocapsid protein, whereas antibodies against the spike protein are produced after about one week from the appearance of symptoms [11][12][13].…”

COVID-19 in regions with low prevalence and low density of population. An uncertainty dynamic modeling approach

“…Main treatment options suggested against SARS-CoV-2 include chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine, favipiravir, remdesivir, lopinavir/ritonavir, umifenovir, steroids, cepharanthine, interferon, ivermectin, ribavirin, convalescent plasma, anticoagulants, mesenchymal stem cells and neutralizing antibodies, among others. However, there is an urgent need for effective rapid diagnostics, vaccines and therapeutics to detect, prevent, treat and contain SARS-CoV-2 [24, 25, 26].…”