“…In the past few decades, remediation methods including replacement, soil flushing, electrokinetic remediation, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and phytoremediation were developed (Mena et al, 2016;Kumari et al, 2017;Kumari et al, 2018;Chen and Achal, 2019;Duarte-Nass et al, 2020;Ahenkorah et al, 2021;Hu L. et al, 2021;Jiang et al, 2021). However, they are usually time-consuming and may cause secondary pollution (Achal et al, 2012;Nancharaiah et al, 2016;Kappaun et al, 2018;Xue et al, 2022;Yan et al, 2021;Duan et al, 2021a;Cheng et al, 2021;Duan et al, 2021b). Furthermore, heavy metal ions may be re-released into surrounding environments when subjected to the change in environmental conditions (Hu et al, 2021b;Bai et al, 2017;Bai et al, 2021;Xue et al, 2021).…”