Salt consumption by Australian adults: a systematic review and meta‐analysis

Land, Mary Anne; Neal, Bruce; Johnson, Claire; Nowson, Caryl; Margerison, Claire; Petersen, Kristina S.

doi:10.5694/mja17.00394

Cited by 59 publications

(79 citation statements)

References 44 publications

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“…Salt reduction should be a multi-pronged approach with strategies being implemented across multiple levels and settings. It is also crucial that evaluation is a key part of the salt reduction initiatives, with the need for systematic, standardised and repeated monitoring of a national sample of the population in order to determine the effectiveness of salt reduction strategies, tracking this progress against the ultimate goal of reducing salt intake at a population level by 30 % by 2025 (12,16) . In 2004, the UK Food Standards Agency implemented a national salt reduction programme and, over 7 years, there was a 15 % reduction in population salt intake from 9•5 g/d to 8•1 g/d (52,72) .…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sources of dietary sodium and implications for a statewide salt reduction initiative in Victoria, Australia

et al. 2020

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In Victoria, Australia, a statewide salt reduction partnership was launched in 2015. The aim was to measure Na intake, food sources of Na (level of processing, purchase origin) and discretionary salt use in a cross-section of Victorian adults prior to a salt reduction initiative. In 2016/2017, participants completed a 24-h urine collection (n 338) and a subsample completed a 24-h dietary recall (n 142). Participants were aged 41·2 (sd 13·9) years, and 56 % were females. Mean 24-h urinary excretion was 138 (95 % CI 127, 149) mmol/d for Na. Salt equivalent was 8·1 (95 % CI 7·4, 8·7) g/d, equating to about 8·9 (95 % CI 8·1, 9·6) g/d after 10 % adjustment for non-urinary losses. Mean 24-h intake estimated by diet recall was 118 (95 % CI 103, 133) mmol/d for Na (salt 6·9 (95 % CI 6·0, 7·8 g/d)). Leading dietary sources of Na were cereal-based mixed dishes (12 %), English muffins, flat/savoury/sweet breads (9 %), regular breads/rolls (9 %), gravies and savoury sauces (7 %) and processed meats (7 %). Over one-third (38 %) of Na consumed was derived from discretionary foods. Half of all Na consumed came from ultra-processed foods. Dietary Na derived from foods was obtained from retail stores (51 %), restaurants and fast-food/takeaway outlets (28 %) and fresh food markets (9 %). One-third (32 %) of participants reported adding salt at the table and 61 % added salt whilst cooking. This study revealed that salt intake was above recommended levels with diverse sources of intake. Results from this study suggest a multi-faceted salt reduction strategy focusing on the retail sector, and food reformulation would most likely benefit Victorians and has been used to inform the ongoing statewide salt reduction initiative.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sources of dietary sodium and implications for a statewide salt reduction initiative in Victoria, Australia

et al. 2020

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“…To determine the sample size for salt, we have used the standard deviation from recent surveys in Fiji and Samoa (SD: 3.6) which used urine collection [48], with the knowledge that the standard deviation is likely to be lower using a dietary questionnaire [49], which would mean our sample size calculation will be conservative We have estimated the standard deviation of the proportion of dietary energy from free sugar (SD: 5.4) from a recent large survey (the 2011 Australian Health Survey). With a design effect of 1.5 to account for clustering and strati cation, we will need 300 participants in each country at each timepoint to reach 0.9 power with a t-test to detect a 1.2gram reduction in salt consumption.…”

Section: Sample Size and Power For Evaluating Impact Of Food Policiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Scaling-Up Food Policies in the Pacific Islands: Protocol for Policy Engagement and Mixed Methods Evaluation of Intervention Implementation

Webster¹,

Waqa

Thow

et al. 2020

Preprint

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Background Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) have been declared a crisis in the Pacific Islands, and poor diets are a major contributor to this. The COVID-19 pandemic and resulting economic crisis will likely increase the burden on food systems, exacerbating this situation. Pacific Island leaders have been proactive in adopting a range of food policies and regulations to improve diets. This includes taxes and regulations on compositional standards for salt and sugar in foods or school food policies. Whilst there is increasing evidence for the effectiveness of such policies globally, there is a lack of local context-specific evidence about how to implement them effectively in the Pacific. Methods Our 5-year collaborative research project will advance knowledge of how to scale up food policy interventions in the Pacific Islands. The overall aim of this implementation science research project is to test the feasibility and effectiveness of policy interventions to reduce salt and sugar consumption in Fiji and Samoa, and to examine factors that will support sustained implementation. We will engage, as partners, government agencies and civil society in Fiji and Samoa, and support the design, implementation and monitoring of a range of evidence-informed interventions aiming to reduce salt and sugar consumption, in the context of on-going health and environmental challenges, such as COVID-19 and climate change. Specific objectives are to: (1) conduct a policy landscape analysis to understand the potential opportunities and challenges to strengthen policies for prevention of diet-related NCDs in Fiji and Samoa; (2) conduct repeat cross sectional surveys to measure dietary intake, food sources and diet-related biomarkers; (3) use Systems Thinking in Community Knowledge Exchange (STICKE) to strengthen implementation of policies to reduce salt and sugar consumption; (4) evaluate the impact, process and cost effectiveness of implementing these policies. Discussion The project will provide new evidence to support policy making, as well as developing a low-cost, high-tech, sustainable, scalable system for monitoring food consumption, the food supply and health-related outcomes.Contributions to the literature· Poor diets are one of the main contributors to non-communicable diseases. There is increasing evidence to show that food policy interventions (fiscal or regulatory) are an effective way of improving diets, globally. · This project will produce local context-specific evidence for the impact and cost-effectiveness of food policy interventions to improve diets in the Pacific Islands (Fiji and Samoa). It will also produce new insights into what is feasible and which factors contribute most to effective implementation in different contexts.· The findings will provide important insights into gaps in the implementation science literature on food policy implementation, particularly in Small Island Developing States. The project will also make an important contribution globally since the innovative methods of engaging policy makers and monitoring food and health developed through the project may be replicated elsewhere.

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“…According to current data, daily dietary salt intake is 10.1 g for Australian men and 7.3 g for women. 45 The main suppliers of salt are bread and processed foods, 46 with 70-80% of daily dietary salt found in breads/cereals/grains, meat products and dishes, and cheese, but also in ready-made meals, dressings/ sauces and snacks/desserts. Moderate reduction of dietary salt intake also helps to lower systemic hypertension, which is considered a vascular risk factor.…”

Section: Salt Restrictionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Do dietary factors significantly influence tinnitus?

Hofmeister¹

2019

Aust J Gen Pract

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Salt consumption by Australian adults: a systematic review and meta‐analysis

Cited by 59 publications

References 44 publications

Sources of dietary sodium and implications for a statewide salt reduction initiative in Victoria, Australia

Sources of dietary sodium and implications for a statewide salt reduction initiative in Victoria, Australia

Scaling-Up Food Policies in the Pacific Islands: Protocol for Policy Engagement and Mixed Methods Evaluation of Intervention Implementation

Do dietary factors significantly influence tinnitus?

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