Sales and Advertising Channels of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Internet, Social Networks, and Smartphone Apps

Miliano, Cristina; Margiani, Giulia; Fattore, Liana; Luca, Maria Antonietta De

doi:10.3390/brainsci8070123

Cited by 54 publications

(34 citation statements)

References 54 publications

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“…Some substances that are referred to as designer drugs may be medically approved in different countries, thus not fitting the classic definition of a designer drug (Bäckberg et al 2019;Manchester et al 2018;Owen et al 2016;Zawilska and Wojcieszak 2019). The Internet plays a crucial role in the distribution of designer drugs and in the acquisition of information about them (Miliano et al 2018). The number of available designer drugs is constantly growing, and trends and patterns of use change over time.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects

2020

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Psychoactive substances with chemical structures or pharmacological profiles that are similar to traditional drugs of abuse continue to emerge on the recreational drug market. Internet vendors may at least temporarily sell these so-called designer drugs without adhering to legal statutes or facing legal consequences. Overall, the mechanism of action and adverse effects of designer drugs are similar to traditional drugs of abuse. Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cathinones, primarily interact with monoamine transporters and mostly induce sympathomimetic adverse effects. Agonism at l-opioid receptors and c-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA A) or GABA B receptors mediates the pharmacological effects of sedatives, which may induce cardiorespiratory depression. Dissociative designer drugs primarily act as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists and pose similar health risks as the medically approved dissociative anesthetic ketamine. The cannabinoid type 1 (CB 1) receptor is thought to drive the psychoactive effects of synthetic cannabinoids, which are associated with a less desirable effect profile and more severe adverse effects compared with cannabis. Serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT 2A) receptors mediate alterations of perception and cognition that are induced by serotonergic psychedelics. Because of their novelty, designer drugs may remain undetected by routine drug screening, thus hampering evaluations of adverse effects. Intoxication reports suggest that several designer drugs are used concurrently, posing a high risk for severe adverse effects and even death.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects

2020

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“…Over the last decade, an incredibly high number of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) have emerged as alternatives to regulated drugs, and new ones are continuously appearing on the internet, social networks and smartphone apps at an incredibly high rate [ 14 ]. The NPS market is diverse and dynamic, with the number of NPS rising from 166 by the end of 2009 to 950 substances detected by the end of 2019 [ 13 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sex and Gender Differences in the Effects of Novel Psychoactive Substances

et al. 2020

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Sex and gender deeply affect the subjective effects and pharmaco-toxicological responses to drugs. Men are more likely than women to use almost all types of illicit drugs and to present to emergency departments for serious or fatal intoxications. However, women are just as likely as men to develop substance use disorders, and may be more susceptible to craving and relapse. Clinical and preclinical studies have shown important differences between males and females after administration of “classic” drugs of abuse (e.g., Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), morphine, cocaine). This scenario has become enormously complicated in the last decade with the overbearing appearance of the new psychoactive substances (NPS) that have emerged as alternatives to regulated drugs. To date, more than 900 NPS have been identified, and can be catalogued in different pharmacological categories including synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic stimulants (cathinones and amphetamine-like), hallucinogenic phenethylamines, synthetic opioids (fentanyls and non-fentanyls), new benzodiazepines and dissociative anesthetics (i.e., methoxetamine and phencyclidine-derivatives). This work collects the little knowledge reached so far on the effects of NPS in male and female animal and human subjects, highlighting how much sex and gender differences in the effects of NPS has yet to be studied and understood.

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“…The appearance of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is changing the trend in drug use worldwide (Orsolini et al, 2015;Miliano et al, 2016;UNODC, 2016;Corkery et al, 2017;Orsolini et al, 2017), which includes also their safely perceived purchase on the Internet (Miliano et al, 2018). As a matter of fact, in the last decades the classical drugs of abuse are being progressively substituted by their "legal synthetic alternatives" or simply co-abused with these powerful substances.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Neurochemical and Behavioral Profiling in Male and Female Rats of the Psychedelic Agent 25I-NBOMe

et al. 2019

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4-Iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)phenethylamine (25I-NBOMe), commonly called "N-Bomb," is a synthetic phenethylamine with psychedelic and entactogenic effects; it was available on the Internet both as a legal alternative to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and as a surrogate of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), but now it has been scheduled among controlled substances. 25I-NBOMe acts as full agonist on serotonergic 5-HT2A receptors. Users are often unaware of ingesting fake LSD, and several cases of intoxication and fatalities have been reported. In humans, overdoses of "N-Bomb" can cause tachycardia, hypertension, seizures, and agitation. Preclinical studies have not yet widely investigated the rewarding properties and behavioral effects of this compound in both sexes. Therefore, by in vivo microdialysis, we evaluated the effects of 25I-NBOMe on dopaminergic (DA) and serotonergic (5-HT) transmissions in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell and core, and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of male and female rats. Moreover, we investigated the effect of 25I-NBOMe on sensorimotor modifications as well as body temperature, nociception, and startle/prepulse inhibition (PPI). We showed that administration of 25I-NBOMe affects DA transmission in the NAc shell in both sexes, although showing different patterns; moreover, this compound causes impaired visual responses in both sexes, whereas core temperature is heavily affected in females, and the highest dose tested exerts an analgesic effect prominent in male rats. Indeed, this drug is able to impair the startle amplitude with the same extent in both sexes and inhibits the PPI in male and female rats. Our study fills the gap of knowledge on the behavioral effects of 25I-NBOMe and the risks associated with its ingestion; it focuses the attention on sex differences that might be useful to understand the trend of consumption as well as to recognize and treat intoxication and overdose symptoms.Neuropharmacology of the Synthetic Hallucinogen 25I-NBOMe Miliano et al.

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Sales and Advertising Channels of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Internet, Social Networks, and Smartphone Apps

Cited by 54 publications

References 54 publications

Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects

Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects

Sex and Gender Differences in the Effects of Novel Psychoactive Substances

Neurochemical and Behavioral Profiling in Male and Female Rats of the Psychedelic Agent 25I-NBOMe

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