Sage, Salvia officinalis L., Constituents, Hepatoprotective Activity, and Cytotoxicity Evaluations of the Essential Oils Obtained from Fresh and Differently Timed Dried Herbs: A Comparative Analysis

Abstract

Sage, Salvia officinalis L., is used worldwide as an aromatic herb for culinary purposes as well as a traditional medicinal agent for various ailments. Current investigations exhibited the effects of extended dryings of the herb on the yields, composition, oil quality, and hepatoprotective as well as anti-cancer biological activities of the hydrodistillation-obtained essential oils from the aerial parts of the plant. The essential oils’ yields, compositions, and biological activities levels of the fresh and differently timed and room-temperature dried herbs differed significantly. The lowest yields of the essential oil were obtained from the fresh herbs (FH, 631 mg, 0.16%), while the highest yield was obtained from the two-week dried herbs (2WDH, 1102 mg, 0.28%). A notable decrease in monoterpenes, with increment in the sesquiterpene constituents, was observed for the FH-based essential oil as compared to all the other batches of the essential oils obtained from the different-timed dried herbs. Additionally, characteristic chemotypic constituents of sage, i.e., α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, myrcene, 1, 8-cineole, α-thujone, and camphor, were present in significantly higher proportions in all the dried herbs’ essential oils as compared to the FH-based essential oil. The in vivo hepatoprotective activity demonstrated significant reductions in the levels of AST, ALT, and ALP, as well as a significant increase in the total protein (p < 0.05) contents level, as compared to the acetaminophen (AAP) administered experimental group of rats. A significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the ALT level was demonstrated by the 4WDH-based essential oil in comparison to the FH-based essential oil. The levels of creatinine, cholesterol, and triglycerides were reduced (p < 0.05) in the pre-treated rats by the essential oil batches, with non-significant differences found among them as a result of the herbs dryings based oils. A notable increase in the viability of the cells, and total antioxidant capacity (TAOxC) levels, together with the reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were observed by the essential oils obtained from all the batches as compared with the AAP-treated cell-lines, HepG-2, HeLa, and MCF-7, that indicated the in vitro hepatoprotective effects of the sage essential oils. However, significant improvements in the in vivo and in vitro hepatoprotective activities with the 4WDH-based oil, as compared to all other essential oil-batches and silymarin standard demonstrated the beneficial effects of the drying protocol for the herb for its medicinal purposes.

Bio-Evaluation of the Wound Healing Activity of Artemisia judaica L. as Part of the Plant’s Use in Traditional Medicine; Phytochemical, Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antibiofilm Properties of the Plant’s Essential Oils

“…The reported oil production percentage (0.18% v / w ) has been calculated for the fresh plant samples [ 24 ]. However, the current percentage (1.71 ± 0.3% w / w ) of essential oil production resulted from the distillation of the ten-day dried plant sample, which is consistent with the reported percentages of the essential oil production from dried samples of the aromatic plants, i.e., rosemary and sage [ 66 , 67 ]. Moreover, the current essential oil recovery percentage (1.71 ± 0.3% w / w ) was nearly similar to the recorded data reported for the wild species of ArJ growing in the Southern region of Jordan (1.62%) [ 20 ].…”

Topical Eucalyptol Ointment Accelerates Wound Healing and Exerts Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Rats’ Skin Burn Model

“…It also decreases the expression of COX-2 protein and prostaglandin E2 in topical treatment, which reduces the incidence and number of skin tumors 52) . Eucalyptol s importance increases due to its representation in aromatic medicinal plants at higher concentrations 14,49,53,54) . Also, eucalyptol is a primary constituent of aromatic plants with wound healing properties, e.g., salvia, rosemary, and eucalyptus oils 55−57) .…”

Physicochemical Characterization and Prospecting Biological Activity of Some Authentic Transylvanian Essential Oils: Lavender, Sage and Basil

“…In vitro studies concerning anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects have also been explored in the case of sage EO [ 78 , 79 ]. However, most of the in vitro studies focused on the cytotoxic and antitumor effects of S. officinalis EO on different cell types [ 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 ]. The growth-inhibitory and proapoptotic effects of eighteen sage EOs were evaluated in three human melanoma cell lines, A375, M14 and A2058 [ 82 ].…”

“…The results showed that the potential anticancer activity of the sage EO may be related to the active α- and β-thujone isomers associated with the synergism of other compounds such as camphor. Mohammed et al [ 84 ] observed that the EO yields, compositions and biological activity levels of the fresh and differently timed and room-temperature dried herbs differed slightly. However, the EO obtained from two-week dried sage herbs exhibited better protection, as well as anticancer activities on the MCF-7, HepG-2 (hepatocellular carcinoma) and HeLa (cervical carcinoma) cell lines.…”