Safrole-induced expression of proinflammatory responses is associated with phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase family and the nuclear factor-κB/inhibitor of κB pathway in macrophages

Abstract

Objective: Safrole, also called shikimol and Sassafras, is the carcinogenic and phenylpropanoid compound extracted from Sassafras tree and anise, betel, and camphor. Moreover, a high concentration of safrole can be occur in the saliva because of betel nut or areca quid chewing which a common habit observed in Southern and Southeastern Asia. Notably, macrophages are crucial phagocytic cells of the immune system. Nonetheless, to date, no evidence has been reported regarding safrole-induced proinflammatory response and the corresponding mechanism in macrophages. Materials and Methods: In the present study, the cytokines expression, NO generation, protein phosphorylation, and expression were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Griess reagent, and Western blot assay, respectively. Results: In this study, we determined that safrole induces the generation of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and IL-6 in RAW264.7 macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, inhibitor of κB (IκB) degradation was caused by safrole in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, the phosphorylation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, including p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, was induced by safrole began to increase at 10 μM and attained a plateau at 100 μM. Conclusion: These results indicated that safrole induces the expression of proinflammatory responses in macrophages through the NF-κB/IκB pathway and its upstream factor, MAPK family phosphorylation.

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“…However, Ni and colleagues were the first to show that safrole (at 10 µM and attaining a plateau at 100 µM) promoted the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, and NO in macrophages via NF-κB/IκB pathway and its upstream factor, MAPK family phosphorylation [243]. Further, safrole treatment induced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and apoptosis in macrophages through the generation of intracellular ROS and suppression of anti-oxidative enzymes, possibly via Akt (protein kinease B) phosphorylation [244].…”