Rwanda and Burundi, 1889-1930: Chronology of a Slow Assassination, Part 1

Drivers of increased soil erosion in East Africa’s agro-pastoral systems: changing interactions between the social, economic and natural domains

“…Which of these responses will dominate depends on the local interactions between the natural, social and economic domains in agro-pastoral systems as illustrated by Figs. 1 and 2 (Ananda and Herath 2003;Boserup 2017;Lele et al 1989). The population-led response locks growing communities into a continuous spiral of increasing exploitation of soil resources, which ultimately prohibits development of sustainable agropastoral systems.…”

“…From an economic development perspective, the instalment of an export-based economy also opened up opportunities to link certain cash-crops to the global market, where farmers could build up economic capital and invest that into better practices. Additionally, the introduction of pesticides, high-yield crop and livestock varieties, mineral fertilisers (post-WW2) and agricultural technologies also offered opportunities to increase the productivity (Boserup 2017;Jones 1980;Migot-Adholla et al 1991;Ruthenberg 1968;Smith 1989). Whether regions are argued to have developed or have been exploited by colonial rule, the enormous impacts it had on agro-pastoral systems in East Africa cannot be ignored.…”

“…Africa's rural poor are heavily dependent on natural resources for survival, have limited access to capital, fertilisers and technology and thus cannot invest in improved land management. Hence, poverty is a major driver of soil degradation (Boserup 2017;Tittonell and Giller 2013). One example is that poor East African farmers tend to raise row monocrops, such as maize, because of the low investment, quick return and predictable market values, even though the soil is highly susceptible to erosion under these cover types (Barron et al 2003;Blaikie and Brookfield 2015;Salami et al 2010).…”

“…In communities with underdeveloped social and economic domains, population increase is thus a major driver of increased rates of soil erosion (Tittonell and Giller 2013). Vice versa, in the sustainable intensification response, population pressure promotes more favourable technological and organisational innovation that not only increases productivity but also preserves other ecosystem services (Ananda and Herath 2003;Bernard and Lux 2017;Boserup 2017). Examples from sustainable intensification responses in African systems demonstrate communities' potential to adapt to increasing population pressure by investing in soil conservation methods, allowing a sustainable increase in productivity and revenues (Barbier 1998;Matlon and Spencer 1984;Tengö and Hammer 2003;Tiffen et al 1994;Turner et al 1993).…”

Problematizing state capacity: the Rwandan case

“…The Nyiginya state expanded slowly over time introducing variation in exposure of different parts of Rwanda to Nyiginya rule. At the time of colonization in 1897, some parts of Rwanda had been under Nyiginya rule for over 200 years, whereas others were de facto outside state control and were only incorporated with the help of German and, later, Belgian troops (see Botte, 1985aBotte, , 1985b on these expeditions). Heldring (2021) reconstructed the timing of the expansion of the state at the level of the regions that the Nyiginya state successively incorporated.…”