Rudimentary Physiological Effects of Mere Observation

Abstract

Complex social factors can influence physiological activity, behavior, and health, but little is known about how essential components of these factors (e.g., human association, observation) affect human physiology. To begin to address this issue, an experiment was conducted to contrast predictions from social facilitation, distraction/conflict, and physiological reactivity formulations regarding the physiological effects of mere observation. Skin conductance and heart rate were measured surreptitiously from 27 women during a period in which they believe that the experimenter was simply calibrating auditory and physiological recording equipment. Approximately half of the subjects were led to believe that they could be observed by the experimenter during this period, and the remainder were led to believe that they could not be observed. Following baseline recordings, a series of 10 orienting tones were presented. Predictions from the physiological reactivity formulation were supported: (a) no differences in basal levels of somatovisceral activity were found as a function of mere observation; (b) mere observation enhanced the skin conductance response to the initial orienting tone; and (c) these physiological differences were punctate, quickly dissipating and quickly habituating. Hence, mere observation has subtler physiological effects than thought previously. Implications are discussed regarding the possible mechanism underlying the stress-enhancing and stress-buffering effects of human association, and regarding the effects social and contextual factors may have in psychophysiological research. Results from an international survey, based on the responses of 57 authors of articles that have appeared in Psychophysiology since 1983, are reported to inform the latter discussion. Results suggest that, even when social factors in psychophysiological research are minimized or held constant within studies, subtle differences in the social context across studies within and across laboratories may contribute to the appearance that psychophysiological relationships are unreliable.

Cardiovascular reactivity during performance under social observation: The moderating role of task difficulty

“…According to our findings, explicit social evaluation is not necessary to boost potential motivation and test anxiety plays no significant role in the determination of cardiovascular reactivity under social evaluation-as the zero-effect of this variable as a covariate indicated. Moreover, observers who are physically present during task performance seem to have different effects than people who are merely present without a performance context (see Cacioppo et al, 1990;Vrana and Rollock, 1998).…”

“…Cacioppo et al (1990) found that being observed resulted in increased skin conductance in response to a presented orienting tone. Vrana and Rollock (1998) reported (among other autonomic indices) heart rate increases caused by a minimal social encounter with an experimenter entering the laboratory and taking participants' pulse.…”

Effect of self‐focused attention on the startle reflex, heart rate, and memory performance among socially anxious and nonanxious individuals

“…have found that startle responses are smaller when one is being observed and have hypothesized this finding as indicating withdrawal of attention from the environment. However, there are alternative explanations for startle diminution while being observed~Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997!, and other studies have suggested that being observed leads to greater responsivity to the environment~Cacioppo, Rourke, Marshall-Goodell, Tassinary, & Baron, 1990!. Hypothesizing about the probable impact of self-focus-induced negative mood is more straightforward. The magnitude of the startle response is larger while viewing unpleasant pictures than while viewing pleasant pictures, regardless of the sensory modality in which the startle occurs~Bradley, Cuthbert, & Lang, 1990;Vrana, Spence, & Lang, 1988!.…”

How to like yourself better, or chocolate less: Changing implicit attitudes with one IAT task

“…We predicted that this would lead to a relative implicit preference for the concept paired with positive versus negative. As concepts characterized by weak a priori attitudes are more susceptible to conditioning (e.g., Cacioppo, Marshall Goodell, Tassinary, & Petty, 1992), we used letters of the alphabet (I vs. O) and names of unknown social groups (Luupites vs. Niffites) as attitude objects (Gregg, Seibt, & Banaji, 2006;Nuttin, 1985Nuttin, , 1987. Each participant performed one IAT task.…”