Rubidium Vapour-cell Frequency Standards : Metrology of Optical and Microwave Frequency References

Abstract

This thesis concerns the development, study, and optimisation of compact and high-performance frequency references based on rubidium (Rb) vapour cells1. More specially, two Rb vapour-cell frequency references are studied: an optical-frequency reference at 1.5 μm and a double-resonance pulsed optically pumped (POP) atomic clock. The use of vapour cells allows compact frequency references (typically a volume of few litres) and with relative frequency stability (1) for a microwave atomic clock at the level of 1×10-14 at 1 day (equivalent to 1 ns/day) and (2) for the optical reference at the level of 1×10-11at 1 day (equivalent to ~4 kHz/day). Such compact frequency references can be applied in industry, telecommunications, navigation, or as an on-board optical-frequency reference (e.g. LIDAR). The first part of this thesis evaluates the medium- to long-term frequency stability of high-performance, compact POP atomic clocks. It evaluates the POP atomic clock frequency sensitivity to relevant quantities: laser frequency and intensity fluctuations (light-shift (LS) effects), microwave power (microwave-power shifts), and environmental effects (barometric effects, temperature). The impact of such perturbations are quantified using (1) a sensitivity coefficient, or shift coefficient, defined as the variation of the clock frequency with respect to the perturbing physical parameter (e.g. a power variation σp), ΔVclock/Δp; and (2) the amplitude of fluctuation of the perturbing physical parameter itself at various time scales, σp(Τ). The sensitivity coefficients of the LS effect and the microwave-power shift are minimised, contributing to the clock's long-term frequency instability below 10-14 (relative frequency fluctuation). A barometric effect is demonstrated in vapour-cell frequency standards. The natural fluctuation of the atmospheric pressure deforms the glass body of the vapour cell, which changes the internal gas pressure. It results in a coupling of the clock frequency with the atmospheric pressure. The phenomenon is characterised experimentally and theoretically, and the contribution of the barometric effect is reduced below 10-14. By minimising the barometric effect, the microwave-power sensitivity, and the LS effect, a POP clock frequency stability of 1×10-14 (relative frequency fluctuation) at 104 seconds of integration time is demonstrated. More fundamental studies are carried out on the origin of the microwave-power shift in our POP clock prototype. The impact of the field inhomogeneity (light field and microwave fields) on the Ramsey signal and the clock frequency is studied numerically. Based on the simulated microwave-field amplitude distribution in the clock vapour cell, the measured Ramsey signal and its properties (contrast, the full width at half maximum (FWHM)) is reproduced by simulations. The validation of the additive manufacturing (3D printing) for the fabrication of the complex microwave cavities is demonstrated. The POP clock setup and its possibilities (due to pulsed interrogation) is used to evaluate the homogeneity and the distribution of the microwave field of the 3D-printed microwave cavity. Equivalent microwave-field distribution between the additive manufacturing cavity and the conventional-manufacturing cavity is demonstrated. Short-term frequency stability at the level of the state-of-the-art is presented. The studies on microwave atomic clocks presented in this thesis constitute important steps towards a better understanding of double-resonance atomic clocks. The identification of the main source of long-term frequency instability and its reduction to below a relative frequency instability of 10-14 allows for our atomic clock prototype to be compared with state-of-the-art, compact, high-performance atomic clock. Moreover, this level of frequency instability allows for new studies on the physical phenomena to which the atomic clock is less sensitive to be conducted. The reported clock frequency stability with the additive manufacturing technology is an important step towards the commercialisation of high-performance double-resonance Rb atomic clocks. The optical-frequency references studied in this thesis used an Rb vapour cell for the frequency stabilisation of lasers at 780 nm, 1560 nm and 1572 nm. A 1560 nm master laser was frequency stabilised to a Rb optical transition at 780 nm using frequency doubling. An optical-frequency comb generator was used to fill the gap of 12 nm between 1572 nm and the laser at 1560 nm. The laser system was designed to be an on-board frequency reference at 1572 nm for spaceborne CO2 LIDAR systems or optical pumping for Rb cell atomic clocks. The demonstrated frequency stability of the 1572 nm laser at 1572 nm is below 3×10-11 (equivalent to 5.8 kHz at 1572 nm) at all time scales reaching 4×10-12 (equivalent to 760 Hz at 1572 nm) in the long-term at the state-of-the-art level. In addition, the reproducibility and repeatability of the frequency stabilisation scheme of the master laser were evaluated. The degradation of the frequency noise and the relative intensity noise through the non-linear doubling process were also evaluated. The characterisation of the optical-frequency references identifies the basic elements for future evaluations of applications of optical pumping in atomic clocks or satellite LIDAR on-board frequency references. 1 This work was conducted at the Laboratoire Temps-Fréquence at the University of Neuchâtel. This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (FNS): “Precision double-resonance spectroscopy and metrology with stabilised lasers and atomic vapours: applications for atomic clocks and magnetometers” no. 156621 (2015–2019).