Role of the environment in the decline of infant mortality: an analysis of the 1911 Census of England and Wales

Abstract

This study tests the proposition that the contribution of environmental factors to the reduction of infant mortality early in the twentieth century was greater than that made by the alleviation of poverty. The estimates were obtained from retrospective reports of women enumerated at the 1911 Census, and covered the period from approximately 1895 to 1910. Infant mortality by father's occupation underwent an average decline of 35% from a peak infant mortality rate (IMR) of 132, with wide variation. The removal of poor (usually urban) residential conditions was probably associated with the decline, but, except at the extremes, income did not explain the differences. In the 97 great towns, the subject of this study, where the average decline in IMR was also 35% from a peak of 146, the rate of urbanization over 20 years accounted for a significant proportion of the differential decline, and measures of poverty added little to the explanation. This conclusion survived multivariate analysis using urban development and poverty level as explanatory variables, and controlling for fertility decline and selective migration.

Thinking of England and taking care: Family building strategies and infant mortality in England and Wales, 1891–1911

“…In the case of the United Kingdom, however, we do not consider income to be captured by these variables, and as husbands age squared was insignificant and of little further explanatory value, it was excluded from the present analysis. (14) The methods used to estimate infant mortality are described in the manual produced in 1983 by the United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs, and are discussed by Watterson (1986Watterson ( , 1988. Because the 1911 census collected fertility information from married women only we have no information concerning illegitimate children.…”

“…The information contained in the two parts of the 1911 census report dealing with the 'fertility of marriage' has formed the basis of considerable research into the social, economic and demographic factors associated with fertility and children's life changes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (Innes, 1938;Friedlander, 1983;Szreter, 1983;Watterson, 1986 and1988;Woods, 1987;Haines, 1989;Crafts, 1989;Lee, 1991;Preston and Haines, 1991). Given that British census data referring to individuals is kept confidential for 100 years, however, scholars have had to work within the framework set out by the published tables: correlations could not be made at the individual level, spatial units could not be broken down and some of the Registrar General's more important assumptions could not be re-examined.…”

“…The role of 'environment' has also been emphasised by (e.g. Woods, 1985;Watterson, 1986;Woods and Hinde, 1987). The distinction used is generally a simple urban-rural one, as the data E. Garrett and A. Reid available do not enable very fine differentiation between different types of urban area.…”

Infant mortality decline in rural and urban Bavaria: fertility, economic transformation, infant care, and inequality in Bavaria and Munich, 1825–1910†

“…Watterson, ‘Environment’; Haines, ‘Socio‐economic differentials’; Preston and Haines, Fatal years . The exception is Ferrie, ‘Socioeconomic status’, who found that personal wealth influenced rural American infant mortality in the 1850s and 1860s.…”

Infant mortality in Ottawa, 1901; an historical-geographic perspective.

“…This point has been made numerous times in the mortality, and particularly infant mortality literature. For more information see (among others): Beaver, 1973;Bradbury, 1990a;Condran and Cheney, 1982;Copp, 1974;Dyhouse, 1978;Gagan, 1989;Haines, 1995;Mclnnis, 1990a;Mooney, 1994;Morel, 1991;Ogden, 1994;Preston and Haines, 1991;Schofield and Reher, 1991;Smith and Frost, 1994;Thornton and Olson, 1991;Watterson, 1986;Woods, Watterson and Woodward, 1989;Woods, Watterson and Woodward, 1988. 2. Although this reflects an earlier date than that used in this thesis, it allows for a general comparison using data that was systematically gathered.…”