Role of Smoking in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis: A Review Article

Abstract

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex and unpredictable neurological condition. It is the most commonly seen autoimmune disorder. The incidence of disease and its prevalence are growing worldwide. Early identification of the disease and accurate diagnosis is important to prevent further complications and disability. The etiology remains unclear, and it is believed that complex gene-environment interactions play an essential role. Genetic predisposition only describes a portion of the disease risk, whereas lifestyle and environmental factors are significant contributors. Smoking was identified as an important risk factor for MS. The main objectives of this review were to examine the underlying mechanisms of immune dysregulation in the development of MS, explore the association between smoking and MS, and identify other genetic and environmental factors that alter the risk of developing the disease. We searched PubMed for articles relevant to the study topic published between 2000 and 2020 using the search terms "multiple sclerosis," "cigarette smoking," "risk factors," and, "epigenetics." Studies reveal a marked association between smoking and the risk of MS. Unlike genetic risk factors, many lifestyles and environmental factors can be adjusted, with potential for prevention, particularly for people at the highest risk, such as families of individuals with MS.

The Role of Ocrelizumab in Multiple Sclerosis Treatment

“…Multiple sclerosis (MS), which is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory demyelinating disease, affects the CNS [1,2]. It is a broad disabling and debilitating neurological condition commonly diagnosed in the young adult population.…”

Vitamin D and Multiple Sclerosis; Is There a Real Association?

“…Multiple sclerosis is a chronic autoimmune demyelinating disease of the CNS, affecting commonly young adults worldwide and resulting in debilitating and disabling neurological outcomes [1,2]. The most common affected age is between 20 to 40 years, and the exact etiology remains unclear [1,2].…”

“…Multiple sclerosis is a chronic autoimmune demyelinating disease of the CNS, affecting commonly young adults worldwide and resulting in debilitating and disabling neurological outcomes [1,2]. The most common affected age is between 20 to 40 years, and the exact etiology remains unclear [1,2]. However, genetic predisposition and environmental factors, such as low vitamin D, smoking, Ebstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, lack of physical activities, and childhood obesity are predisposing factors involved in MS pathophysiology [1][2][3][4].…”

“…The most common affected age is between 20 to 40 years, and the exact etiology remains unclear [1,2]. However, genetic predisposition and environmental factors, such as low vitamin D, smoking, Ebstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, lack of physical activities, and childhood obesity are predisposing factors involved in MS pathophysiology [1][2][3][4]. MS is not only an autoimmune inflammatory disease but also a neurodegenerative condition [1].…”

“…Moreover, the prevalence of MS has markedly increased since 1990, estimating that more than 2.5 million people have this condition worldwide. Additionally, in the United States, MS affects almost 250,000-300,000 people [2]. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol) is one of the lipid-soluble vitamins synthesized following the skin conversion of 7dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D. Ultraviolet (UV) B radiation is needed for this conversion.…”