“…Multiple mechanisms have been shown to mediate opioid analgesic tolerance, OIH, and addiction implicating neuroinflammation, and, in particular, microglial activation (Cahill & Taylor, 2017;Eidson & Murphy, 2019;Rivat & Ballantyne, 2016;Roeckel, Coz, Gaveriaux-Ruff, & Simonin, 2016). Opioid-induced neuroimmune reactions dysregulate physiological reward and analgesia processes, thus contributing to tolerance, withdrawal, and addiction (Cahill & Taylor, 2017;Chen, Zhang, Qadri, Serhan, & Ji, 2018;Eidson & Murphy, 2019;Lin & Lu, 2018;Melik Parsadaniantz, Rivat, Rostene, & Reaux-Le Goazigo, 2015). Experimental evidence using whole-body knockout (KO) mice and pharmacological interventions indicates that MOR, encoded by Oprm1 gene, is critical for both opiate analgesia, and side effects including analgesic tolerance, physical dependence (Maldonado, Banos, & Cabanero, 2018), and OIH (Corder et al, 2017;Roeckel et al, 2017).…”