Risky decision making from childhood through adulthood: Contributions of learning and sensitivity to negative feedback.

Abstract

Decision-making in the context of risk is a complex and dynamic process that changes across development. Here, we assess the influence of learning and sensitivity to negative feedback (i.e., loss) on age-related changes in risky decision-making, both of which can show unique developmental trajectories. The present study examined risky decision-making in 216 individuals, ranging in age from 3–26 years, using the Balloon Emotional Learning Task (BELT), a computerized task in which participants pump up a series of virtual balloons in order to earn points, but risk balloon explosion on each trial which results in no points. Importantly, there were three balloon conditions, signified by different balloon colors, ranging from quick- to slow-to-explode, and participants could learn the color–condition pairings via task experience. Overall, we found age-related increases in pumps made and points earned. However, in the quick-to-explode condition, there was a nonlinear adolescent peak for points earned. Follow-up analyses indicated that this adolescent phenotype occurred at the developmental intersection of linear age-related increases in learning and decreases in sensitivity to negative feedback. Adolescence was marked by intermediate values on both these processes. These findings show that a combination of linearly changing processes can result in non-linear changes in risky decision-making, where adolescent-specific risky decision-making is associated with developmental improvements in learning and reduced sensitivity to negative feedback.

Adolescent transitions in reflexive and non-reflexive behavior: Review of fear conditioning and impulse control in rodent models

“…Largely, adolescent animals display a more impulsive pattern of responding and engage in riskier decisions than adults, something that occurs in human adolescents as well (e.g. Green et al, 1994; Humphreys et al, 2016). At least in tasks described, there are no studies that have included pre-adolescent, adolescent, as well as adult animals permitting direct comparison.…”

Adaptive Adolescent Flexibility: Neurodevelopment of Decision-making and Learning in a Risky Context

“…Adolescent rodents (Pattwell et al, 2012), nonhuman primates (Spear, 2000), and humans (Humphreys, Lee, & Tottenham, 2013) show behavioral patterns that support increased flexibility, even at potential risk to their health and reproductive success. For instance, human adolescents show age-related increases in risk taking as well as adolescent-specific increases in learning in a risk-taking context (Humphreys et al, 2016), and adolescents show greater tolerance for ambiguity during risk taking than do adults (Tymula et al, 2012), which might promote learning during adolescence. Adolescent mice also show increased flexibility and learning when pursuing rewards (Johnson & Wilbrecht, 2011).…”

Failure to retreat: Blunted sensitivity to negative feedback supports risky behavior in adolescents

“…On the behavioral level, there does appear to be a developmental decrease in sensitivity to negative feedback. However, this decrease continues through adolescence and into adulthood; that is, it is not unique to adolescents (van Duijvenvoorde et al, 2008; Cauffman et al, 2010; Humphreys et al, 2016). Neural evidence for a unique adolescent reduction in sensitivity to negative feedback is considerably more sparse (but see Ernst et al, 2005).…”

“…During reversal learning, for instance, children show greater reward learning and adults show greater punishment learning, while adolescents show fewer distinctions in how feedback type relates to behavioral performance (van der Schaaf et al, 2011; van den Bos et al, 2012). Additionally, during risk taking, adolescents’ risk behavior is more likely to be unchanged after receiving negative feedback, while children tend to increase and adults tend to decrease their risk behavior (Humphreys et al, 2016). Moreover, decreases in sensitivity to negative feedback interact with increased rates of learning during adolescence to promote behavioral advantages over adults and children during high, but not low or medium, risk situations (Humphreys et al, 2016).…”

“…Additionally, during risk taking, adolescents’ risk behavior is more likely to be unchanged after receiving negative feedback, while children tend to increase and adults tend to decrease their risk behavior (Humphreys et al, 2016). Moreover, decreases in sensitivity to negative feedback interact with increased rates of learning during adolescence to promote behavioral advantages over adults and children during high, but not low or medium, risk situations (Humphreys et al, 2016). These patterns of results may reflect changes in how positive and negative information are integrated together and differentially weighted.…”