Risk Factors of γ-Hydroxybutyrate Overdosing

Abstract

The aim of this study was to identify in recreational drug users the factors which increase the risk of overdosing (OD) with γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB). A purposive sample of 45 experienced GHB users was interviewed, equally divided into three groups (never OD, occasional OD, and repeat OD). The repeat OD group scored highest on many risk factors regarding GHB use, the occasional OD group scored intermediate, and the never OD group scored lowest. Participants, whether or not they had overdosed on GHB, most often perceived GHB use (e.g. using more GHB than usual, using GHB doses too closely together) as the main reason for GHB OD, and many participants who had overdosed on GHB reported that they had taken more GHB than usual at their most recent occasion of GHB OD. No significant differences in co-use of GHB with other substances were found between the three groups. Our findings indicate that using GHB in the company of groups of friends probably reduces, but does not eliminate, the risk of OD.

Influence of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid-Use and Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid-Induced Coma on Affect and the Affective Network

“…Regardless of the relative low prevalence of use, intoxication with Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is currently the fourth most common recreational drug-related intoxication presented at emergency rooms in Europe [1][2][3][4]. These emergency attendances predominantly resulting from GHB-induced comas, are paralleled by growing DOI: 10.1159/000497381 numbers of users seeking treatment for GHB dependence [3][4][5][6].…”

“…GHB has a narrow dose margin between the desired effects and overdose [2,21]. As a result, many regular users of GHB experience multiple GHB-induced comas lasting between 1 and 4 h and often scoring the most critical classification on the Glasgow coma scale [1,2,9,21].…”

“…As a result, many regular users of GHB experience multiple GHB-induced comas lasting between 1 and 4 h and often scoring the most critical classification on the Glasgow coma scale [1,2,9,21]. Even if transient, these comas have been associated with hypoxia (oxygen deprivation) and may lead to oxidative stress in the amygdala and the hippocampus [22][23][24].…”

“…Even if transient, these comas have been associated with hypoxia (oxygen deprivation) and may lead to oxidative stress in the amygdala and the hippocampus [22][23][24]. However, since no negative outcomes are experienced immediately after returning to consciousness from GHBinduced comas, most users still believe that GHB use is safe and these comas are harmless [1,2,25].…”

New psychoactive substances: reducing the harm caused by untested drugs and an unregulated market

“…From the early 1990s, municipalities near the Dutch border were visited by thousands of international coffee shop tourists every day, leading to diplomatic tensions between the Netherlands and neighbouring countries-and especially with the Chirac government in France, which held the Chapter 9 | Issues in focus ( 65 ) For fuller discussion of the evolution of Dutch drug markets and drugs policy, see Jansen (1989Jansen ( , 2008, Boekhout van Solinge (1996, Korf et al (2001), De Ruyver (2006), van de Bunt (2006), van Ooyen-Houben (2006, Surmont (2007), Fijnaut and De Ruyver (2008) and Pakes and Silverstone (2012). ( 66 ) Coffee shops were not allowed to advertise (A), or sell hard drugs (H) and had to make sure there was no nuisance (O), no people younger than 18 were allowed in the shops (J) and the maximum transaction size was restricted to 5 g per person (G).…”