Reward-cost balancing among women coalminers

The Influence of Social Status on Token Women Leaders' Expectations About Leading Male-Dominated Groups

“…Kanter (1977b) reported that as a consequence of these common experiences, token women were more likely to: 1) have their mistakes amplified; 2) be isolated as a social outgroup; and 3) be encapsulated into roles that undermined their status. In support of Kanter's work, these results have been documented not only in women managers but also in women police 5 officers (Ott, 1989), coal miners (Hammond & Mahoney, 1983), construction workers (Greed, 2000), firefighters , military cadets (Yoder, Adams, & Prince, 1983), and law students (Spangler, Gordon, & Pipkin, 1978).…”

“…One of the most striking changes that has occurred is the large increase in workforce participation by women (Budig, 2002;Burke, 2001;Konrad & Cannings, 1997;Neubert, 1999). Although many women have been employed in "lower-paying, feminized occupations" (Budig, 2002, p. 258), there has been extensive interest in the small numbers of women who are employed in fields that have traditionally been populated almost exclusively by men (Floge & Merrill, 1986;Greed, 2000;Hammond & Mahoney, 1983;Kanter, 1977aKanter, , 1977bLinehan, 2002;Ott, 1989;Yoder, Adams, & Prince, 1983). The experiences of these women, known as "tokens" (Kanter, 1977a) due to their numerical scarcity, have been carefully documented by many researchers.…”

Tokenism in policing: An empirical test of Kanter's hypothesis

“…Studies had examined token female enlisted soldiers (Rustad, 1982); West Point cadets (Yoder, Adams, & Prince, 1983); scientists (Etzkowitz, Kemelgor, Neuschatz, Uzzi, & Alonzo, 1994); physicians (Floge & Merrill, 1986); corporate executives (Lyness & Thompson, 2000); Wall Street professionals (Roth, 2004); academic faculty (Yoder, Crumpton, & Zipp, 1989); engineering students (M. Ott, 1978); coal miners (Hammond & Mahoney, 1983); transit workers (Swerdlow, 1989); auto workers (Gruber & Bjorn, 1982); union representatives (Izraeli, 1983); and steel workers (Deaux & Ullman, 1983). Other researchers had focused on token male nurses (Floge & Merrill, 1986;Heikes, 1991); elementary school teachers (Cognard-Black, 2004); flight attendants (Young & James, 2001); and social, child care, and clerical workers (Kadushin, 1976;Schreiber, 1979;Seifert, 1973).…”

2001 Division 35 Presidential Address: Context Matters: Understanding Tokenism Processes and Their Impact on Women's Work

“…I started to think about the role of occupational deviance in the tokenism process. A quick overview of the contexts in which women tokens were studied-as salesmanagers, military cadets and enlisted personnel (Rustad, 1982), coal miners (Hammond & Mahoney, 1983), physicians (Floge & Merrill, 1985;Lorber, 1984), academicians (Young, Mackenzie, & Sherif, 1980), autoworkers (Gruber & Bjorn, 1982), policewomen (Gerber, 1996;Martin, 1994;Ott, 1989), correctional officers (Jurik, 1985;Zimmer, 1986), and transit workers (Swerdlow, 1989)-made it clear that these women not only worked with mostly men, but also violated occupational norms. Social psychologists have amassed convincing evidence that costs accompany social deviance, and indeed a 1978 vignette study by Fran Cherry and Kay Deaux found that negative outcomes accompanied occupational deviance for a stimulus person.…”