Revisiting “Success” and “Failure” of Marine Protected Areas: A Conservation Scientist Perspective

Abstract

Marine protected areas (MPAs) form the cornerstone of marine conservation. Identifying which factors contribute to their success or failure is crucial considering the international conservation targets for 2020 and the limited funds generally available for marine conservation. We identified common factors of success and/or failure of MPA effectiveness using peer-reviewed publications and first-hand expert knowledge for 27 case studies around the world. We found that stakeholder engagement was considered to be the most important factor affecting MPA success, and equally, its absence, was the most important factor influencing failure. Conversely, while some factors were identified as critical for success, their absence was not considered a driver of failure, and vice versa. This mismatch provided the impetus for considering these factors more critically. Bearing in mind that most MPAs have multiple objectives, including non-biological, this highlights the need for the development and adoption of standardized effectiveness metrics, besides biological considerations, to measure factors contributing to the success or failure of MPAs to reach their objectives. Considering our conclusions, we suggest the development of specific protocols for the assessment of stakeholder engagement, the role of leadership, the capacity of enforcement and compliance with MPAs objectives. Moreover, factors defining the success and failure of MPAs should be assessed not Giakoumi et al. MPA Success and Failure only by technical experts and the relevant authorities, but also by other stakeholder groups whose compliance is critical for the successful functioning of an MPA. These factors should be considered along with appropriate ecological, social, and economic data and then incorporated into adaptive management to improve MPA effectiveness.

Research Priorities for Achieving Healthy Marine Ecosystems and Human Communities in a Changing Climate

“…Examining common ocean sustainability interventions through an equity lens could shift the way interventions are envisioned and applied. General findings show that community stakeholder engagement is important for the success of conservation initiatives (Giakoumi et al, 2018), and outcomes are highly dependent on processes for participation (Reed, 2008;Sterling et al, 2017). "Equity" is a multidimensional issue, and multiple frameworks exist that describe differences in types of equity and how they may interface with conservation initiatives (Klein et al, 2015;Montambault et al, 2018).…”

Ecological and Socio-Economic Effects of Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs) in Temperate Waters

“…These trade-offs mean that not all benefits can be maximised simultaneously. Since stakeholders need to make informed decisions about their relative preferences (Koch et al, 2009;Lester et al, 2013) and stakeholder support is key to successful implementation and management (Di Franco et al, 2016;Ban et al, 2017;Woodcock et al, 2017;Giakoumi et al, 2018), marine managers must be able to explain the impact and distribution of these trade-offs for differing management regimes.…”

Demographic variability and scales of agreement and disagreement over resource management restrictions

“…However, values, trade-offs, cooperation, and compliance vary for different stakeholder professions, such as users, traders, and managers, and demographic scales, such as individual, family, community, and local to global governments (Daw et al 2016). Therefore, coordination and leadership within and above the community level should be critical for successful common-pool resources management (CPRM; Gutiérrez et al 2011, Giakoumi et al 2018.…”