Revisiting goodness of fit in the cultural context: Moving forward from post hoc explanations

Abstract

The goodness-of-fit model, which proposes that developmental outcomes result from combinations of environmental and children's factors, has contributed substantially to the recognition of person × environment processes. However, which pattern of person × environment interactions characterizes this model remains unclear, making it difficult to test or compare with other models (e.g., the differentialsusceptibility model). In this article, we offer solutions for these issues. We propose that a contrastive effect pattern best summarizes both goodness of fit and poorness of fit. We outline methodological considerations that help determine whether a person × environment interaction supports the goodness-of-fit model. We then discuss how person × environment interactions can be culturally specific, an issue aligned with the goodness-of-fit model but not other models. We illustrate cultural specificities in socialization-by-temperament interactions with evidence from different sociocultural groups. These theoretical and methodological refinements help clarify how person × environment interactions can be interpreted and predicted by the goodness-of-fit model.

Goodness of fit in the Chinese context of socialization in the first three years.

“…Together, our findings demonstrate that socialization expectations, socialization practices, and child characteristics are jointly predictive of social adjustment across early childhood and all the significant interactions are characterized by a contrastive effect pattern, therefore congruently supporting the goodness-of-fit hypotheses (Dong, Dubas, & Dekovic, 2022). These findings have the potential to be applied to future interventions.…”

“…Correspondingly, different, or even contrasting, associations between a certain socialization factor and child social adjustment may occur to children with varying levels of self-control. Such a potentially contrastive effect is consistent with the pattern of interactions that supports the goodness-of-fit model (Dennis, 2006; Dong, Dubas, & Dekovic, 2022).…”

“…Conversely for the respect for autonomy-by-self-control interaction, positive versus negative associations with externalizing behaviors are likely for children with low versus high levels of self-control. Therefore, they both are congruent with the pattern of a contrastive effect, showing that there are opposite associations between parenting and child outcomes for children with varying levels of characteristics (Dennis, 2006; Dong, Dubas, & Dekovic, 2022).…”

“…Theoretically, goodness of fit and poorness of fit coexist in a representative sample of children, with goodness of fit forecasting optimal development in a progressive direction and poorness of fit predicting pathological or suboptimal functioning (Chess & Thomas, 1999). The core of this model lies in the predictive power of specific combinations between a particular environmental factor and a certain child characteristic in a sociocultural group (Chess & Thomas, 1999; Dong, Dubas, & Dekovic, 2022). When applied to socialization contexts, such combinations are investigated through two approaches (Seifer et al, 2014): the expectation-behavior approach (i.e., socialization goals-by-temperament) and the behaviors matching approach (i.e., socialization practices-by-temperament).…”

“…The goodness-of-fit model includes two processes (socialization goals-by-temperament and socialization practices-by-temperament interactions) and can be supported by the pattern of a contrastive effect (Dong, Dubas, & Dekovic, 2022). In contemporary Chinese families, socialization goals of both relatedness and autonomy have been proposed to be important for young children’s development (e.g., Kagitcibasi, 2005).…”