Review, with special reference to temporal position.

Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice

“…But when degree of original learning is high, a test, as Nungester and Duchastel (1982) determined, may result in significantly better reten-tion than an equivalent amount of time spent in review. As Sones and Stroud (1940) noted:…”

“…For example, English et al (1934) found that four readings of a text at 3-hr intervals were associated with better learning than four consecutive unspaced readings; however, readings at 3-hr intervals were no better than readings at either 1-or 3-day intervals. Similarly, Lyon (1914), Peterson et al (1935), and Sones and Stroud (1940) reported essentially no differences in retention between groups with rereadingreviews spaced 1 and 7, 1 and 9, and 1 and 17 days after original learning. These findings were later corroborated by Ausubel (1966) and by Gay (1973, Experiment 1).…”

“…Thus, the so-called "potentiating effect" of test trials applies mainly to test questions with successful outcomes. Finally, the facilitating effects of tests are greater for repeated questions than for new items (Anderson and Biddle, 1975;Nungester and Duchastel, 1982;Runquist, 1986;Sones and Stroud, 1940). For example, Rothkopf (1966) had college students study a lengthy selection from a book on marine biology, followed by questions on the passage.…”

“…On the one hand, there is some evidence that experimental conditions affect each of them differently, suggesting that they have differential effects on learning. For example, Sones and Stroud (1940) provided seventh-graders with either a test or a review at various intervals following the reading of an article. Forty-two days after the reading, a multiple-choice retention test was administered.…”

The Influence of the Evaluating Instrument on Students’ Learning

“…Sones and Stroud (1940) found that the effectiveness of the multiple-choice test as a form of review varied inversely with the amount of time between the original learning and the test. Jones (1923) forced recitation by means of a brief oral quiz immediately following a lecture and found that students who were quizzed recalled shortly thereafter as much as 58 per cent more of the content of the lecture than did students not so quizzed.…”