Review—The Beautiful Molecule: 30 Years of C₆₀and Its Derivatives

Abstract

In 1996 Sir Harold W. Kroto, Robert F. Curl and Richard E. Smalley were honored with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of fullerenes. The advent of these new forms of carbon heralded a race to understand the physical and chemical properties. C 60 is virtually insoluble in polar solvents but is partially soluble in benzene, toluene, and carbon disulfide. This made the processing of fullerenes for new applications fairly problematic. However, the physical and chemical properties of these cage structures may be tailored for a wide range of applications. Some of the difficulties in processing have been overcome by using novel fullerene derivatives. The functionalization of the fullerene core with different chemical moieties provided a vector toward potential applications in drug delivery, optoelectronics, electrochemistry and organic photovoltaics. In this review, we will take a closer look at the features of some of the fullerene derivatives that have reinvigorated the field of fullerene research. Water-soluble polyhydroxylated fullerenes such as fullerenol have demonstrated the potential for good electron transfer and optical transmission, while hydrophobic fullerene derivatives have shown promising avenues for catalytic applications. 2015 marked the 30 th anniversary of the discovery of fullerenes, with celebrations around the world including an event by the Royal Society of Chemistry, bringing together many of Sir Harold Kroto's former students. The event also coincided with the recent discovery of C 60 + in space after a complex twenty-year search. It is with sadness that we, Harry's Research Group at Florida State University, and his international collaborators, reflect on the passing of Sir Harold Kroto. His dedication to science and commitment to science communication through the VEGA Science Trust and the Global Educational Outreach for Science Engineering and Technology (GEOSET) initiative help to raise awareness of the challenges for science in the modern world. We will continue to inspire young students through outreach activities he initiated. Nanostructured carbon materials including fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene and carbon black have the potential to be transformative in many areas from medicine to engineering. Research into carbon nanotubes is diverse in areas such as electrochemical devices, field emission, sensors and probes. [1][2][3][4] Recently, carbon nanotubes have been used as additives in the thermoplastics typically used for 3D printing. 5,6 Graphene is the latest material to have peaked interest in the carbon field in a similar manner to carbon nanotubes, with a range of potential applications.7 Graphene oxide is being explored in the production of 3D holographic images. 8The famous paper in Nature, C60:Buckminsterfullerene, 9 introduced the world to the new form of carbon but the road to general acceptance at that time was difficult, even with mounting evidence in support of the discovery. The paper, now cited over 10,000 times has become the central point of referen...

Fullerene derivatives as nano-additives in polymer composites

“…The ability to be involved in photogeneration of active radicals (singlet oxygen and others) belongs to the family of unique properties of functionalized fullerenes, which ensures stable interest in these materials and novel fullerene-based applications. 387 The use of metallofullerenes as catalysts helps to promote different organic reactions: cycloadditions, Bingel reactions, Prato reactions, and Diels ± Alder type cycloadditions. The electronic properties of metallofullerenes can also be used to control the catalytic activity of proteins in vivo.…”

Carbon Nanostructures in Rotaxane Architectures

“…Since the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, [39] a wide range of covalent and non-covalent chemical strategies involving this carbon allotrope have been developed. [40][41][42][43][44] The first known rotaxane derivative containing a carbon nanostructure was described in 1995 by Diederich et al and consisted of a rotaxane containing two fullerene (C 60 ) units as stoppers. [35] Until this moment, stoppers did not have other role than preventing the macrocyclic component from dissociation.…”

Carbon Nano‐Onion and Zinc Oxide Composites as an Electron Transport Layer in Inverted Organic Solar Cells

“…Since the discovery of fullerenes by Kroto et al., carbon nanostructures (CNs) have attracted considerable attention . They possess attractive properties that enable a broad range of applications in energy conversion, energy storage fields, sensors, biomedical diagnostics, lubrication, catalysis, gas storage, electromagnetic shielding, and optical limiting . One of the allotropic forms of carbon is the carbon nano‐onions (CNOs), also called multilayered fullerenes.…”

“…[19] They possess attractive properties that enable a broad range of applications in energy conversion, energy storage fields, sensors, biomedical diagnostics, lubrication, catalysis, gas storage, electromagnetic shielding, and optical limiting. [20][21][22] One of the allotropic forms of carbon is the carbon nano-onions (CNOs), also called multilayered fullerenes. "Small" CNOs consist of 6 to 8 curved graphene layers with increasing diameters and distances between them of ca.…”