Review—Review on the Progress in Electrochemical Detection of Morphine Based on Different Modified Electrodes

Abstract

Morphine is a powerful opioid pain medication and commonly used narcotic pain killer and is toxic during overdose or when abused. Compared to conventional analytical techniques, the electroanalytical method has significant advantages viz. low cost, simplicity, ease of operation and facile miniaturization. In the present paper different approaches based on various modifications adopted for effective electrochemical sensing of morphine are reviewed in a comprehensive way. Among different modified electrodes available for the detection of morphine, carbon based materials—CNTs and graphene—display effective quantification and are attractive in terms of cost compared to noble metals. In addition, the performance of reported sensors in terms of their including detection range (LDR), limit of detection (LOD) and technique used are presented. The present review compares various electroanalytical techniques adopted for the determination of morphine.

Dual Naked-Eye and Optical Chemosensor for Morphine Detection in Biological Real Samples Based on Cr(III) Metal–Organic Framework Nanoparticles

“…Morphine (MOR), one of the most common opioid family members, is derived from the sap of the poppy plant . Clinically, MOR is known as the benchmark or gold standard analgesic and one of the best analgesic drugs because of its ability to relieve pain (from moderate to severe pain) in patients of cancer, nonmalignant pain, or undergoing surgical procedures. − Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended it as the best opioid drug for pain relief, especially for cancer patients and is commonly used in the USA, UK, some European countries, and worldwide . It is also used as the starting material for synthetic opioid drugs as oxymorphine, hydromorphine, and heroin .…”

“…About 90% of the MOR dose is excreted within 24 h in urine and contains about 10% in the unmetabolized form . The overdose of MOR is toxic and can affect many immune functions and cause a significant disturbance in the central nervous system, blood pressure, and respiratory rate. , …”

“…Many analytical techniques and methodologies were used for MOR detection and quantification such as high-performance liquid chromatography, surface plasma resonance, immunochromatographic assay, fluorescence immunoassays, spectrophotometric method, chemiluminescence, surface-ionization mass spectrometry, and electrochemical methods. − ,, More details about the MOR sensors and detection have been discussed in reference reviews. ,, Although the mentioned methods can offer many advantages, but also have limitations, they frequently require technical expertise, high infrastructure, pretreatment sample steps, are time-consuming, and/or costly. In addition, till date, based on our knowledge, there is no published work for the detection of MOR in terms of used metal–organic framework (MOF) materials.…”

“…2−4 Therefore, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended it as the best opioid drug for pain relief, especially for cancer patients and is commonly used in the USA, UK, some European countries, and worldwide. 1 It is also used as the starting material for synthetic opioid drugs as oxymorphine, hydromorphine, and heroin. 5 MOR is commonly present in hydrochloride or sulfate forms and is administrated orally, intravenously, intramuscularly, rectally, epidurally, subcutaneously, and intrathecally.…”

Recent Progresses in Electrochemical DNA Biosensors for MicroRNA Detection

“…Excellent electrodes require high electrical conductivities and substrate affinity, stable electrochemical and physical properties, with a wide working range and low costs (Sonuç Karaboğa et al 2016). According to previous reviews (Isin et al 2017;Sharma et al 2018;Abraham et al 2020), the electrodes can be divided into metal-based electrodes (gold, platinum, aluminum and copper), metal oxides (MnO 2 , Fe 3 O 4 and CeO 2 ), and carbon-based electrodes (glassy carbon, pencil graphite, carbon fiber, carbon ceramic and boron-doped diamond). Different modification strategies on bare electrodes have been developed to improve the electrical conductivity and selectivity, including modifications with conducting materials and capture probes (Sharma et al 2018).…”