REVIEW: Questionnaires in ecology: a review of past use and recommendations for best practice

Abstract

Summary 1.Questionnaires, or social surveys, are used increasingly as a means of collecting data in ecology. We present a critical review of their use and give recommendations for good practice. 2. We searched for papers in which questionnaires were used in 57 ecological academic journals, published over the period [1991][1992][1993][1994][1995][1996][1997][1998][1999][2000][2001][2002][2003] inclusive. This provided a total sample size of 168 questionnaires from 127 papers published in 22 academic journals. 3. Most questionnaires were carried out in North America and western Europe, and addressed species-level issues, principally focusing on mammals. The majority were concerned with impacts of species and/or their conservation, and just under half with human-wildlife interactions. 4. Postal survey was the method used most frequently to carry out the questionnaires, followed by in-person interviews. Some questionnaires were conducted by telephone, and none was web-based. 5. Most questionnaires were concerned with obtaining factual information or perceptions of facts. Ground-truthing (independent verification of the facts) was carried out in less than 10% of questionnaires. 6. The mean ( ± SE) sample size (number of respondents) per questionnaire was 1422 ± 261 and the average ( ± SE) response rate was 63 ± 3%. These figures varied widely depending on the methods used to conduct the questionnaire. 7. The analysis of data was mostly descriptive. Simple univariate methods were the most frequently used statistical tools, and data from a third of questionnaires were not subjected to any analysis beyond simple descriptions of the results. 8. Synthesis and applications. We provide recommendations for best practice in the future use of questionnaires in ecology, as follows: (i) the definition of the target population, any hypotheses to be tested and procedures for the selection of participants should be clearly documented; (ii) questionnaires should be piloted prior to their use; (iii) the sample size should be sufficient for the statistical analysis; (iv) the rationale for the choice of survey method should be clearly stated; (v) the number of non-respondents should be minimized; (vi) the question and answer format should be kept as simple as possible; (vii) the structure of the questionnaire and the data emerging from it should be unambiguously shown in any publication; (viii) bias arising from non-response should be quantified; (ix) the accuracy of data should be assessed by ground-truthing where relevant; (x) the analysis of potentially interrelated data should be done by means of modelling. Researchers should also consider whether alternative, interpretative methods, such as in-depth interviews or participatory approaches, may be more appropriate, for example where the focus is on elucidating motivations or perceptions rather than testing factual hypotheses.

Pastoralists’ Perception and Ecological Knowledge on Savanna Ecosystem Dynamics in Semi-arid Botswana

“…This approach is increasingly being used by ecologists to investigate changes in ecological systems associated with human behavior (White et al 2005). Rapid assessment interviews with local people are relatively inexpensive and provide reliable information on resource trends (Jones et al 2008).…”

Examining Human Perception of Elephants and Large Trees for Insights Into Conservation of an African Savanna Ecosystem

“…Before land management policies are instituted, officials in charge of environmental regulations are increasingly seeking to understand public perception, not only for consultation but also to augment the education of the public on human-wildlife conflict (White et al, 2005). Other surveys have shown that people express concern about the environment, but only rarely do they act on these concerns (Kaiser, Ranney, Hartig & Bowler, 1999).…”

“…Hence, it is important to understand how research-based management actions may influence tourist perceptions and attitudes. Collecting human survey data has become increasingly popular (White, Jennings, Renwick, & Barker, 2005), and rapid human dimension developments have been made to better understand human-wildlife conflict ("Human", 2013). All of those involved have a view point to be recognized.…”

Forested habitat preferences by Chilean citizens: Implications for biodiversity conservation in Pinus radiata plantations

“…Questionaires are suitable tools to unravel public perceptions in ecological management (White et al 2005), and have been successfully used to assess perceptions and attitudes toward the biota in Chile (e.g., Muñoz-Pedreros et al 2000, De la Fuente et al 2004 as examples of other survey-based studies).…”