Review of plant-vanadium physiological interactions, bioaccumulation, and bioremediation of vanadium-contaminated sites

Rview of phytoremediation of soil contaminated by vanadium

“…The bio-reduction of V(V) to V(VI) during plant vanadium uptake is also deemed as a critical vanadium-tolerance mechanism [28,29] . Vacuoles compartmentalization of vanadium in roots and stems was in part responsible for the lower vanadium accumulation in aboveground parts of plants [13] . In addition, to cope with the elevated vanadium challenge, plants will regulate and enhance the production of some metabolites (e.g., lignin, tannins, and flavonoid) to counteract vanadium [30] .…”

“…Phytoremediation, a solar energy-driven clean-up technology, has gained increasing attention in the current harmonious, friendly, and sustainable development of human society. The remediation of vanadium-contaminated soil mainly includes physical-chemical and biological methods [13] . As a commonly used bioremediation method, phytoremediation is an appealing technology for discarding vanadium from the soil due to its cost-effectiveness, ease to monitor, eco-friendly, and application on a large-scale [14] .…”

“…However, the essentiality of vanadium for higher plant growth has not yet been conclusively demonstrated. Trace quantities of vanadium (e.g., soil vanadium < 2 mg kg −1 ) have shown the stimulative action in chlorophyll synthesis, nutrient intake, nitrogen assimilation, potassium usage of the plant [13] . High levels of vanadium (usually, ˃ 2 mg kg −1 ), however, lead to dwarfing, chlorosis, necrosis, membrane damage, cell death, growth retardation, root deformation, and reduced biomass [16,21,22] .…”

“…Vanadium is concentrated primarily in almost all plants' roots [13,25,26] . Moreover, vanadium is considered to precipitate as CaVO 3 in plant roots, and the storage manner of vanadium is presumed to be the critical tolerance mechanism of plants against vanadium toxicity [24] .…”

“…Moreover, vanadium is considered to precipitate as CaVO 3 in plant roots, and the storage manner of vanadium is presumed to be the critical tolerance mechanism of plants against vanadium toxicity [24] . From the viewpoint of subcellular level, vanadium entered the plant cell was mainly bound with the components of the cell wall consist of proteins, cellulose (hemicellulose), lignin, and ligands (e.g., oxhydryl, amidogen, and carboxyl) [13] . Alkali-soluble pectin constitutes the significant vanadium binding site in the cell wall [27] .…”