Review—Interleukins Profiling for Biosensing Applications: Possibilities and the Future of Disease Detection

Abstract

Interleukins (ILs) are a major subclass of cytokines which act as molecular messengers playing a role in immune system responses via cascade of signalling pathways. Belonging to the cytokine family, ILs play a crucial role in the theronostics of various diseases. Their abnormal expression leads to development of various diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases, and other physiological abnormalities. This paves the way for exploring ILs to develop sensitive and efficient biosensors, and promoting them for clinical testing in a wide array of diseases. Furthermore, detecting the level of ILs is very important for their early diagnosis and their progression within the body, and simultaneously for possible immunotherapeutic approaches. To achieve this goal, multidisciplinary scientific approaches involving immunology, electrochemistry, nanotechnology, photometry, etc. are already being put into action. Advancements in nanoscience and nanotechnology are aiding in the development of highly sensitive biosensors for ILs detection. This review focuses on a detailed description of all presently discovered ILs and their roles in various diseases. Simultaneously, it also discusses the various electrochemical biosensors that can be employed for the detection of ILs in bodily fluids. Moreover, the role of nanomaterials in electrochemical biosensing are also discussed here.

Electrochemical (Bio)Sensing Devices for Human-Microbiome-Related Biomarkers

“…However, methods devoted to interleukins directly related to the gut microbiome and IBD disorder are very scarce. The incorporation of nanomaterials in the construction of electrochemical biosensors allows the detection of ILs with high sensitivity and wide dynamic ranges in comparison with other techniques, as well as the possibility of application to body fluids others than serum, such as saliva or sweat, where these biomarkers are present in much lower concentration [ 47 ]. A general review of recent advances and possibilities with electrochemical biosensors for cytokine profiling has been published [ 48 ].…”

Electrochemical (Bio)Sensing Devices for Human Microbiome Related Biomarkers

“…However, methods devoted to interleukins directly related to the gut microbiome and IBD disorder are very scarce. The incorporation of nanomaterials in the construction of electrochemical biosensors allows the detection of ILs with high sensitivity and wide dynamic ranges in comparison with other techniques, as well as the possibility of application to body fluids others than serum, such as saliva or sweat, where these biomarkers are present in much lower concentration [45]. A general review of recent advances and possibilities of electrochemical biosensors for cytokine profiling has been published [46].…”

Emergence of MXene and MXene–Polymer Hybrid Membranes as Future‐ Environmental Remediation Strategies

“…[ 1 ] Moreover, World Health Organization (WHO) reports that environmental contamination causes impairment to the human respiratory, nervous and immune systems, which turn humans more vulnerable to high‐risk diseases, especially coronavirus disease (COVID‐19). [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ] Consequently, it has raised the concern of policymakers, environmentalists, the research community, and industrialists to achieve environmental remediation. It can be achieved by monitoring and controlling various contaminants (air, water, radiation, and solid) through specific measures and techniques.…”

“…For instance, aniline monomer electrostatically adsorbs over the MXene's surface and between the MXene layers. [49] Depending upon various multi-interactions, there are several reports on architecting MXene-polymer hybrids with various conducting (polypyrrole (PPy), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS)) and hydrophilic (polyimide (PI), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polystyrene (PS), silicones, polymers. [33,43,49,50] Due to molecular and supramolecular dynamics, attention has been devoted to augmenting and tuning the physicochemical attributes developing from organic-inorganic interfaces in hybrids.…”