Review-Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Electrochemical Sensor for Lactate Detection in Human Biofluids

Abstract

Lactate is one of the potential biomarkers for assessing the human condition in clinical medicine or sports application. Lactate measurement could help in alerting various emergency conditions, such as bleeding, hypoxia, respiratory failure, and sepsis. Lactate monitoring could also benefit athletes in monitoring their muscle activity to prevent injury due to excessive muscle use or fatigue. In light of this, biosensor technology has been widely explored, especially on the use of electrochemical sensors to analyze the content of biological samples through direct biological activities conversion to electronic signals. This has become imperative for the detection of lactate which offers easy, quick, and reliable measurement. Despite enzymatic sensors being the focus of many studies, the non-enzymatic sensor has started to gain attention in recent years to overcome the stability issue of enzymes. This review presents an overview of the concepts, applications, and recent advancements of different electrochemical lactate sensors. A comparison of recent studies for both enzymatic and non-enzymatic lactate sensors based on electrode modification, enzymes, enzymes immobilizer, and several performance factors, including sensitivity, linearity, detection limit, and storage stability, all of which have been performed. Towards the end, this review also highlights some recommendations for future development of lactate sensors.

Advanced Functional Membranes for Sensor Technologies

“…Furthermore, these membranes must be non-toxic and biocompatible to minimize the risk of epithelialization or allergic reactions. In this context, the use of enzymes [54][55][56][57], hydrogels [6,41,[58][59][60], and conductive polymers such as polyaniline (PANI) [61][62][63][64], polypyrrole (PPy) [65][66][67], polythiophene (PT) [68][69][70], or polyethylene dioxide thiophene (PEDOT) [43,[71][72][73][74] has been reported for the development of bioelectrodes due to their biocompatibility, conductivity, and the presence of tunable functionalities. However, its application in the development of biosensors is limited by different reasons and challenges to overcome, such as its relative fragility; its decrease in properties against variations in the pH of the medium, possible degradation in toxic or reactive compounds; and in some cases the use of synthesis processes and complex manufacturing procedures that are difficult to implement outside the laboratory scale [70][71][72][73][74][75][76].…”

Review on Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP) for Electrochemical Sensor Development

“…Recently, MIP also has attracted a great deal of interest and promising high performance in stability, selectivity, and sensitivity for targeted molecules (Yang et al, 2019;Yücebaş et al, 2020;Fu et al, 2021;Md Shakhih et al, 2021). With the help of MIP, various issues and problems from various areas such as food analysis, drug delivery, cancer detection, pharmaceutical, and clinical analysis can be solved (Arvand, Zamani and Sayyar Ardaki, 2017;Yücebaş et al, 2020).…”

“…Lactate is an antioxidant and a key metabolite formed from the anaerobic metabolism of glucose in the human body (Mengarda et al, 2019;Pereira and Stradiotto, 2019;Md Shakhih et al, 2021). The assessment of this biomarker is widely applied to various applications such as sports medicine, clinical analysis, and the food industry (Rassaei et al, 2014;Pereira and Stradiotto, 2019;Md Shakhih et al, 2021).…”

“…Lactate is an antioxidant and a key metabolite formed from the anaerobic metabolism of glucose in the human body (Mengarda et al, 2019;Pereira and Stradiotto, 2019;Md Shakhih et al, 2021). The assessment of this biomarker is widely applied to various applications such as sports medicine, clinical analysis, and the food industry (Rassaei et al, 2014;Pereira and Stradiotto, 2019;Md Shakhih et al, 2021). Notably, there was a research on electropolymerization of the o-phenylenediamine (o-PD) on the modified surface of the GCE with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and gold nanoparticles (AuNP) in the presence of lactic acid (Pereira and Stradiotto, 2019).…”

“…The adaptation is made here by having the MIP as the lock or the biomimetic recognition element and the target molecule (template) as the key in the interaction. The unique feature of the MIP allows it to be more advantageous compared to its biological sibling, whereby it has the ability to be produced at a lower cost and having a longer life-span with good storage stability (Cheong, Yang and Ali, 2013;Li et al, 2019;Md Shakhih et al, 2021). The high specificity and selectivity (Bt Ahamad Mashat et al, 2022) of MIP towards the target molecule make it a good candidate to replace biological receptors in biosensors and opened its potential in replacing and improving biological system-based biosensors (Farooq et al, 2022;Ramanavičius et al, 2022).…”