Retroviral PBS-segment sequence and structure: Orchestrating early and late replication events

Abstract

An essential regulatory hub for retroviral replication events, the 5’ untranslated region (UTR) encodes an ensemble of cis-acting replication elements that overlap in a logical manner to carry out divergent RNA activities in cells and in virions. The primer binding site (PBS) and primer activation sequence initiate the reverse transcription process in virions, yet overlap with structural elements that regulate expression of the complex viral proteome. PBS-segment also encompasses the attachment site for Integrase to cut and paste the 3’ long terminal repeat into the host chromosome to form the provirus and purine residues necessary to execute the precise stoichiometry of genome-length transcripts and spliced viral RNAs. Recent genetic mapping, cofactor affinity experiments, NMR and SAXS have elucidated that the HIV-1 PBS-segment folds into a three-way junction structure. The three-way junction structure is recognized by the host’s nuclear RNA helicase A/DHX9 (RHA). RHA tethers host trimethyl guanosine synthase 1 to the Rev/Rev responsive element (RRE)-containing RNAs for m7-guanosine Cap hyper methylation that bolsters virion infectivity significantly. The HIV-1 trimethylated (TMG) Cap licenses specialized translation of virion proteins under conditions that repress translation of the regulatory proteins. Clearly host-adaption and RNA shapeshifting comprise the fundamental basis for PBS-segment orchestrating both reverse transcription of virion RNA and the nuclear modification of m7G-Cap for biphasic translation of the complex viral proteome. These recent observations, which have exposed even greater complexity of retroviral RNA biology than previously established, are the impetus for this article. Basic research to fully comprehend the marriage of PBS-segment structures and host RNA binding proteins that carry out retroviral early and late replication events is likely to expose an immutable virus-specific therapeutic target to attenuate retrovirus proliferation. Graphical abstract