Respiratory and antinociceptive effects of dexmedetomidine and doxapram in ball pythons (Python regius)

Abstract

U ntreated pain and causes of stress in reptiles are associated with immunocompromise, negative energy balance, and delayed wound healing. 1 Welldefined guidelines exist regarding pain assessment and management in mammals, 2-4 but not for reptiles, for which the neural mechanisms of pain are poorly understood and effective analgesic drugs are frequently lacking. [5][6][7][8][9] Consequently, analgesia may infrequently be provided to reptilian patients in practice. 5 Opioids are effective analgesics in turtles and lizards, 10-15 but opioids are inconsistently effective analgesics in snakes, with many opioids failing to provide adequate antinociception in laboratory models of pain. 11,16,17 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are commonly used in practice to mitigate signs of post- Respiratory and antinociceptive effects of dexmedetomidine and doxapram in ball pythons (Python regius)Alyssa A. Karklus ms, dvm Kurt K. Sladky ms, dvm

Evaluation of the effects of a dexmedetomidine-midazolam-ketamine combination administered intramuscularly to captive red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria)

“…Respiratory depression is considered to be a common effect of a 2 -adrenoceptor agonists in reptiles. 24 This lower respiratory rate was consistent with findings in other studies 11,25,26 of chelonians that revealed bradypnea or apnea following administration of medetomidine. For example, a study 27 in which medetomidine and ketamine were administered to gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) resulted in moderate hypercapnia, hypoxemia, and respiratory acidemia, which resolved following atipamezole administration.…”

“…In ball pythons (Python regius), doxapram ameliorated the respiratory depressive effects of dexmedetomidine while preserving its antinociceptive effects. 24 Thus, the addition of doxapram should be evaluated in future studies of red-footed tortoises undergoing this protocol.…”

“…Blood gas analysis and capnography or closedchamber plethysmography can be used in future studies to determine whether the lower respiratory rates are considered physiologically appropriate with this protocol. 24 Also, these tortoises were tested at a room temperature of approximately 25 °C during the month of September, and the observed responses could have been different under different ambient temperatures 39 or at different times of the year. 40 The DMK protocol described in this report produced deep sedation or light anesthesia in this sample of healthy red-footed tortoises for ≥ 20 minutes, with no response to mild noxious stimuli and successful intubation in some of the tested animals.…”

Antinociceptive effects of nortriptyline and desipramine hydrochloride in Speke's hinge‐back tortoise (Kinixys Spekii)

“…Therefore, it appears that α 2 -adrenergic receptors are key for antinociception in the Speke's hinge-back tortoise, and drugs stimulating α 2 -adrenergic receptors at the dorsal horn are potential analgesics in these animals. This is consistent with findings from other reptile studies that show that dexmedetomidine (α 2 -adrenergic agonist) has antinociceptive effects in pythons [10,52]. The use of selective adrenergic antagonists may greatly help elucidate the particular receptors that mediate analgesia by nortriptyline and desipramine in the Speke's hinge-back tortoise.…”

The Effects of Doxapram Blocking the Response of Gram-Negative Bacterial Toxin (LPS) at Glutamatergic Synapses

“…However, as more information is gained, the better our understanding will be in characterizing the response to bacterial infections and cellular responses in various organisms as well as how pharmacological agents can impact the responses. Perhaps the NMJs of the crayfish can aid in serving as a model for this purpose as well as developing a better understanding in the actions of doxapram since it has been and is still used clinically for humans and in veterinary medicine [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ].…”