Resonance Raman Spectroscopy and the Preterm Infant Carotenoid Status

Abstract

Objective: The aim of the study was to validate the noninvasive resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS) method in infants in comparison with the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method, and to evaluate the carotenoid status in preterm infants fed with mother’s milk or formula. Study Design: In the first phase of the study, resonance Raman measurements were made on male term infants’ skin and correlated with tissue harvested at the time of circumcision. Each baby’s foreskin was weighed, enzymatically digested, and the total carotenoids were extracted and quantitated by the HPLC. Next, to evaluate the carotenoid status of preterm infants (BW <1500 g), the skin and serum carotenoids in infants fed with either human milk or preterm formula were studied from the start of feedings and every 2 weeks until hospital discharge. Skin carotenoids were measured by RRS and the serum total carotenoids by HPLC. Results: Foreskin carotenoid levels measured by RRS correlated with HPLC measurements of total serum carotenoids (R=0.52, P<0.01, n=16). Forty preterm infants were studied for their carotenoid status. Thirty-two infants were fed mother’s milk, whereas 8 were fed a preterm infant formula that was not enriched with carotenoids. The gestation and birth weight of the 2 feeding groups were similar. The infants fed human milk had a higher serum total carotenoid concentration and skin Raman counts than formula-fed infants. The skin Raman counts and total serum carotenoid correlated (R=0.44, P=0.01). The human milk-fed infants’ serum total carotenoid concentrations and Raman values did not change during the study period; however, the formula-fed group’s total serum and skin carotenoid decreased significantly during the study. Conclusion: RRS of infant’s skin reliably assesses total carotenoid status noninvasively. Human milk-fed preterm infants have higher serum and skin carotenoids than formula-fed infants suggesting that formula-fed infants may benefit from carotenoid supplementation.

Blue-Light Reflectance Imaging of Macular Pigment in Infants and Children

“…As has been previously reported in adults, 13 skin RRS in our study population correlates significantly with total serum carotenoid levels and total dietary carotenoid intake, reflecting the diversity of carotenoids found in skin biopsies of adult humans and newborn male foreskins. 13,30 In contrast to adult humans, 14 we even found a significant correlation between skin RRS and MPOD in our enrolled subjects.…”

Health Effects of Carotenoids during Pregnancy and Lactation

“…Infants exclusively breastfed are characterized by better nutritional status as compared to infants mixed or artificially fed. Artificially fed infants after several months of receiving formulas have serum concentration of carotenoids several times lower as compared to values noticed after birth, and sometimes even lower than detection threshold [ 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 ]. This suggests the importance of enriching infant formulas with carotenoids, particularly with lutein, to improve or optimize the nutritional status of the newborns who are fed artificially.…”

The emerging roles of the macular pigment carotenoids throughout the lifespan and in prenatal supplementation

“…We also noted that maternal serum and skin carotenoid levels were unexpectedly low relative to our normative database, implying that the mothers may have become carotenoid depleted during pregnancy. After delivery, premature infants can rapidly become carotenoid depleted due to severe oxidative stress and the fact that premature infant nutritional formulations typically do not include any carotenoids ( 65 ). Additional postnatal L and Z transfer to the full-term child can continue through breast milk or by L- and Z-fortified infant formulas.…”