Residual palm kernel expeller as the support material and alimentation provider in enhancing attached microalgal growth for quality biodiesel production

Value-added green biorefinery co-products from ultrasonically assisted DES-pretreated Chlorella biomass

“…Furthermore, the ANOVA results indicated that the model exhibited a satisfactory relationship between the response and independent variables, as evidenced by the high F -value and low p-value ( Table 2 ). Previous studies have emphasized the importance of having a large F -value and a small p-value to confirm the significance of the coefficient terms [29] . In this study, the model yielded an F -value of 4.61 ( Table 2 ), suggesting that a significant portion of the variations in the response can be explained by the regression equation.…”

“…This was supported by the strong correlation and agreement observed between the experimental values and the values calculated from the quadratic model [30] . Additionally, the adequacy of precision was evaluated by the signal-to-noise ratio, which should exceed 4.0 to indicate a sufficiently discriminative model [29] . The obtained value of adequate precision for the model was 42.22 ( Table 2 ), suggesting that the developed model can effectively navigate the designated parameter space.…”

“…The inclusion of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in biodiesel offers the advantage of having a lower melting point, enabling better fuel flow in cold temperatures compared to saturated fatty acids (SFA) [39] . But the presence of these FAME species requires the use of an oxidative stabilizer for safe application [29] . The susceptibility of PUFAs and MUFAs to autoxidation contributes to the degradation of biodiesel and potential complications in the fuel system [29] , [40] .…”

“…But the presence of these FAME species requires the use of an oxidative stabilizer for safe application [29] . The susceptibility of PUFAs and MUFAs to autoxidation contributes to the degradation of biodiesel and potential complications in the fuel system [29] , [40] . Nevertheless, the proportion of SFAs, MUFAs, and PUFAs obtained in this study closely resembled those found in other biodiesel feedstocks, including widely utilized industrial feedstocks like palm oil and Jatropha [41] .…”

Immobilization: the promising technique to protect and increase the efficiency of microorganisms to remove contaminants

“…Additionally, the matrix acts as a protective barrier against environmental fluctuations, safeguarding the microalgae from adverse effects caused by temperature or pH changes. 175 Rawindran et al 176 Introduced a novel approach by cultivating and harvesting attached C. vulgaris sp. microalgae using solid organic waste from palm kernel expeller (PKE) as a support and feed material for microalgal biofilm formation.…”