“…On the other hand, PID algorithms assist vehicles in making real-time adjustments, enabling them to maintain stability in various environments and conditions [ 15 , 16 , 18 , 22 ]. Based on the literature [ 1 , 2 , 7 , 9 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 18 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ], it is evident that PID control algorithms are primarily applied in linear systems, while AGV motion control systems are nonlinear. PID algorithms mainly involve cumulative error calculations, making them susceptible to saturation.…”