Religiosity predicts prosociality, especially when measured by self-report: A meta-analysis of almost 60 years of research.

Abstract

This meta-analysis explores the long-standing and heavily debated question of whether religiosity is associated with prosocial and antisocial behavior at the individual level. In an analysis of 701 effects across 237 samples, encompassing 811,663 participants, a significant relationship of r = .13 was found between religiosity and prosociality (and antisociality, which was treated as its inverse). Nevertheless, there was substantial heterogeneity of effect sizes, and several potential moderators were explored. The effect was most heavily moderated by the type of measurement used to assess prosocial or antisocial behavior. Religiosity correlated more strongly with self-reported prosociality (r = .15) than with directly measured prosocial behavior (r = .06). Three possible interpretations of this moderation are discussed, namely, that (a) lab-based methods do not accurately or fully capture actual religious prosociality; (b) the self-report effect is explained by religious self-enhancement and overreports actual prosociality; or (c) both religiosity and self-reported prosociality are explained by self-enhancement. The question of whether religiosity more strongly positively predicts prosociality or negatively predicts antisociality is also explored. This moderation is, at most, weak. We test additional potential moderators, including the aspect of religiosity and type of behavior measured, the ingroup or outgroup nature of the recipient, and study characteristics. Finally, we recommend a shift in how researchers investigate questions of religiosity and prosociality in the future. Public Significance StatementThis work summarizes the large body of evidence bearing on the long-standing question of whether more religious people act more prosocially. We find that religiosity is indeed correlated with prosociality. However, this association is stronger when prosociality is measured by self-report than when prosocial behavior is directly measured. These findings set the stage for what future research in this area should focus on and help us better understand the nature of religiosity in a world where its societal role is shifting.

Outsourcing punishment to karma: Thinking about karma reduces the punishment of transgressors

“…Other punishment-promoting beliefs, such as the desirability of seeing justice served, may have been overridden. This phenomenon echoes previous findings (Laurin et al, 2012), indicating the need to investigate how both momentary activation of beliefs and chronic, stable beliefs about supernatural beings affect behavior (Kelly, Kramer, & Shariff, 2024;Pasek et al, 2023;Shariff, Willard, Andersen, & Norenzayan, 2016).…”