Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

Abstract

Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.

Benefits of belonging: Experimental manipulation of social inclusion to enhance psychological and physiological health parameters

“…see Crocker & Park, 2004); the impact of belonging on self-esteem has been difficult to interpret. Whilst some research suggests that exposure to acute exclusion has been linked to lower self-esteem (Leary, 2007;Gerber et al 2009) yet other research by Blackhart et al (2009) observed neutral effects, which were not indicative of an exclusion-self-esteem link. Blackhart et al (2009) suggested that differences in self-esteem following manipulation of belonging might be driven by the effects of inclusion rather than exclusion.…”

“…Whilst both reactive and neutral mood responses might be deemed adaptive in mitigating the immediate impact of exclusion, no clear distinction between these two response states has emerged in relation to psychological or physical parameters. In meta-analyses assessing mood responses following exclusion, Gerber and Wheeler (2009) and Blackhart et al (2009) reached opposing conclusions. Gerber and Wheeler (2009) reported that social exclusion was linked to a worsening of mood associated with emotional distress.…”

“…Gerber and Wheeler (2009) reported that social exclusion was linked to a worsening of mood associated with emotional distress. However, Blackhart et al (2009) argued that any worsening of mood was relatively minor and did not equate to a state of distress, but rather to a relatively neutral state which did not exceed everyday mood levels. Bernstein and Claypool (2012) suggested that discrepancies in mood response might, in part, be dependent on the belongingness manipulation used.…”

“…These potential opportunities for enhancing acute belonging through inclusion have remained largely neglected (Blackhart, Nelson, Knowles & Baumeister, 2009). In the limited THE BENEFITS OF BELONGING 3 number of studies where they have been considered, evidence suggests that inclusion increases trust (Hillebrant, Sebastian, Blakemore, 2011) and reduces the impact of prior exclusion (DeWall, Twenge, Bushman, Im & Williams, 2010) with consequent health benefits.…”

Settling for less out of fear of being single.

“…Because of the importance of social connection to survival and reproduction in our evolutionary past (Caporeal, 2001;Foley, 1995), humans require meaningful and persisting associations with others for both physical and psychological well-being (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). A lack of social connection is associated with negative emotional states (Blackhart, Nelson, Knowles, & Baumeister, 2009), impairments in self-regulation (Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, & Twenge, 2005), hostility and aggression (Chow, Tiedens, & Govan, 2008;Leary, Twenge, & Quinlivan, 2006), and negative health outcomes such as increased risk of contracting illnesses and greater risk of mortality (Cohen, Doyle, Skoner, Beyond a broad need for social connection, attachment theory specifically highlights the need for close bonds with trusted attachment figures (Bowlby, 1969;Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). The attachment system is rooted in infant-caregiver connections, and becomes activated in response to distress and threat in order to prompt individuals to seek security and comfort from caregivers (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970;Bowlby, 1969).…”