Reinforcement and Compensatory Mechanisms in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review of Case-Control Studies

Abstract

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neuropsychological disorder that causes inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness in patients. Ventral striatal hypo-responsiveness, orbitofrontal cortex, and dopaminergic status in the brain are related to the pathogenesis of ADHD. Reinforcement tasks by monetary incentive delay (MID) was shown to produce more responsiveness in patients. In this study, we reviewed how reinforcement interventions and compensatory mechanisms affect the behavior of ADHD patients. This systematic review was undertaken as per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guidelines, and PubMed database was used for literature search. The quality appraisal was completed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale, and nine case-control studies were included in this systematic review. A total of 976 participants were included, with 493 cases and 330 controls. The studies included discuss reinforcement, attention networks, and compensatory mechanisms. Our review concludes that reinforcement improves responsiveness to gain and loss of rewards in ADHD patients. Reward processing is selectively associated with the salience network. While ADHD, predominantly the inattentive type, is insensitive to stimuli, ADHD combined type and controls showed similar responsiveness. The right visual cortex may also be related to compensatory mechanisms in ADHD. As we only included case-control studies from the last eight years, in the English language, we might have missed some relevant studies related to this research. Because the included studies have a relatively small sample size, we recommend future studies to explore larger cohorts of patients to improve the reliability of findings pertinent to this field.

Comparative efficacy of targeted structural patterns of electroencephalography neurofeedback in children with inattentive or combined attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

“…The personal learning and interpersonal contact abilities of ADHD patients are sometimes seriously affected, and patients can even develop cognitive, conduct, and emotional disorders (Baijot et al., 2017 ). In the clinic, ADHD is divided into the predominantly inattentive type (ADHD‐PI, 45% of ADHD patients), the predominantly hyperactive/impulsive type (ADHD‐HI, 21% of ADHD patients), and the combined type (ADHD‐CT, 34% of ADHD patients) (Cueli et al., 2019 ; Valmiki et al., 2021 ).…”