Regulatory Cells in Multiple Sclerosis: From Blood to Brain

Calahorra, Leticia; Camacho-Toledano, Celia; Serrano‐Regal, Mari Paz; Ortega, María Cristina; Clemente, Diego

doi:10.3390/biomedicines10020335

Cited by 33 publications

(29 citation statements)

References 185 publications

(261 reference statements)

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“…Since myelin-reactive T cells are found in healthy individuals, it was suggested that MS pathogenesis could be associated with insufficient immune regulation by Tregs (176). Tregs could suppress the activity of Th1 and Th17 effector cells (Teff), cytotoxic CD8+ T cells (Tc), and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by direct contact and secretion of suppressive cytokines (177). By presenting myelin, APCs could trigger activation and differentiation of pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells, releasing proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN-g, TNF-a and IL-17 (178).…”

Section: Tregsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Autoreactive lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: Pathogenesis and treatment target

Liu

Zhao

et al. 2022

Front. Immunol.

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Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by destruction of the myelin sheath structure. The loss of myelin leads to damage of a neuron’s axon and cell body, which is identified as brain lesions on magnetic resonance image (MRI). The pathogenesis of MS remains largely unknown. However, immune mechanisms, especially those linked to the aberrant lymphocyte activity, are mainly responsible for neuronal damage. Th1 and Th17 populations of lymphocytes were primarily associated with MS pathogenesis. These lymphocytes are essential for differentiation of encephalitogenic CD8+ T cell and Th17 lymphocyte crossing the blood brain barrier and targeting myelin sheath in the CNS. B-lymphocytes could also contribute to MS pathogenesis by producing anti-myelin basic protein antibodies. In later studies, aberrant function of Treg and Th9 cells was identified as contributing to MS. This review summarizes the aberrant function and count of lymphocyte, and the contributions of these cell to the mechanisms of MS. Additionally, we have outlined the novel MS therapeutics aimed to amend the aberrant function or counts of these lymphocytes.

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Section: Tregsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Autoreactive lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: Pathogenesis and treatment target

Liu

Zhao

et al. 2022

Front. Immunol.

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“…Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease of the CNS, characterized by the degradation of the myelin sheaths that cover the brain and spinal cord [ 87 ]. The MS etiology has not been fully elucidated, but the main cause is known to be the loss of self-tolerance developed against various CNS antigens and myelin sheaths [ 88 , 89 ].…”

Section: Microbiota–gut–brain Axis (Mgb)mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The MS etiology has not been fully elucidated, but the main cause is known to be the loss of self-tolerance developed against various CNS antigens and myelin sheaths [88,89].…”

Section: Multiple Sclerosismentioning

confidence: 99%

Probiotics: Protecting Our Health from the Gut

et al. 2022

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The gut microbiota (GM) comprises billions of microorganisms in the human gastrointestinal tract. This microbial community exerts numerous physiological functions. Prominent among these functions is the effect on host immunity through the uptake of nutrients that strengthen intestinal cells and cells involved in the immune response. The physiological functions of the GM are not limited to the gut, but bidirectional interactions between the gut microbiota and various extraintestinal organs have been identified. These interactions have been termed interorganic axes by several authors, among which the gut–brain, gut–skin, gut–lung, gut–heart, and gut–metabolism axes stand out. It has been shown that an organism is healthy or in homeostasis when the GM is in balance. However, altered GM or dysbiosis represents a critical factor in the pathogenesis of many local and systemic diseases. Therefore, probiotics intervene in this context, which, according to various published studies, allows balance to be maintained in the GM, leading to an individual’s good health.

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“…Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common autoimmune, neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) (Calahorra et al, 2022 ). More than two million people around the world suffer from it, which brings a huge social and economic burden to patients (Browne et al, 2014 ; Kobelt et al, 2017 ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Focus on the Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Multiple Sclerosis: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutics

Cui

et al. 2022

Front. Mol. Neurosci.

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Neuroinflammation is initiated with an aberrant innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) and is involved in many neurological diseases. Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes that can be used as platforms to induce the maturation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptosis, thus playing a pivotal role in neuroinflammation. Among the inflammasomes, the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-, leucine-rich repeat- and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is well-characterized and contributes to many neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and ischemic stroke. MS is a chronic autoimmune disease of the CNS, and its hallmarks include chronic inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Studies have demonstrated a relationship between MS and the NLRP3 inflammasome. To date, the pathogenesis of MS is not fully understood, and clinical studies on novel therapies are still underway. Here, we review the activation mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome, its role in MS, and therapies targeting related molecules, which may be beneficial in MS.

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Regulatory Cells in Multiple Sclerosis: From Blood to Brain

Cited by 33 publications

References 185 publications

Autoreactive lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: Pathogenesis and treatment target

Autoreactive lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: Pathogenesis and treatment target

Probiotics: Protecting Our Health from the Gut

Focus on the Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Multiple Sclerosis: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutics

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