“…Although there are numerous studies of multilateral trade system (Feng, Li & Swenson, 2017;Larch et al, 2019), there is little systematic evidence specifically on the WTO loopholes. Moreover, the previous studies analysed separately each of the loopholes without emphasizing their interrelations (Davey, 2005;Henderson, 2003;Wroblewski, Stecz, 2019).…”