Refined Analysis of a Cross-Sectional Doping Survey Among Recreational Triathletes: Support for the Nutritional Supplement Gateway Hypothesis

Abstract

Introduction: The current literature provides no consensus that nutritional supplements (NS) may provide a gateway to doping. In particular, studies in recreational athletes are lacking. Within a previous cross-sectional empirical study, our group provided first evidence that the use of NS may provide a gateway for the use of doping substances in recreational triathletes. For the present paper, we refine the analysis of the triathletes' survey in order to provide evidence for a NS gateway hypothesis in recreational athletes. Methods: A self-report, paper-and-pencil questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 2,997 competitive ironman and half-ironman (n = 1,076; 36.1%) triathletes. The randomized response technique (RRT) was used to assess the 12-month prevalence estimate for the use of doping substances. The prevalence for the use of NS was assessed by using direct questioning. Two-tailed (α = 0.05) large-sample z-tests were performed to assess whether the estimated prevalence for the use of doping substances differs significantly between users and nonusers of NS. Results: The 12-month prevalence estimate for the use of doping substances is significantly higher in athletes who report using NS (20.6%) compared to those who do not (11.4%; z = 2.595, p = 0.0097). Conclusion: The present results are consistent with the hypothesis that the use of NS provides a gateway to the use of doping substances. Therefore, doping prevention concepts should not primarily focus on preventing the use of doping substances per se, but should start one step earlier, namely by the use of NS.

Pharmacological Neuroenhancement Among German University Students: Identification of Potential Risk Groups and its Relation to Psychological, Psychosocial, and Health Behavioral Factors

“…Whereas most of the nal model's odds ratios were small, for the consumption of soft neuroenhancers (coffee, caffeine tablets, coke, and ginkgo biloba), we obtained medium effects on the likelihood of PN within the past 12 months. While other forms of drug use, like drinking and smoking, may be a reason for decreased academic performance 83 and reinforce the apparent necessity of PN, these soft neuroenhancers may provide a gateway to PN 1,74,84 . Especially for the use of caffeine tablets, relations to PN were already stated by other studies 17,85 .…”

“…Furthermore, the prevalence of PN varied between different elds of studies: especially students of 'social sciences, media and sport' had a higher risk for PN compared to students from other elds of study. A possible explanation may be that the use of nutritional supplements (e.g., vitamins, minerals, herbals, caffeine or creatine) is common in the eld of sports and discussed to provide a gateway to the use of illicit drugs [71][72][73][74] .…”

Potential risk groups and psychological, psychosocial, and health behavioral predictors of pharmacological neuroenhancement among university students in Germany

“…Furthermore, the prevalence of PN varied between different fields of studies: especially students of ‘social sciences, media and sport’ had a higher risk for PN compared to students from other fields of study. A possible explanation may be that the use of nutritional supplements (e.g., vitamins, minerals, herbals, caffeine, or creatine) is common in the field of sports and discussed to provide a gateway to the use of illicit drugs 46 – 49 .…”

Doping Attitudes, Beliefs, and Practices among Young, Amateur Croatian Athletes

“…In a study that included a sizeable number of young persons from five European countries (Germany, Italy, Greece, UK, and Cyprus) who practice amateur sports, the prevalence of current PEDs usage was 8.1%, while the prevalence of past PEDs usage was 10.2% [ 1 ]. The above-mentioned prevalence in young amateur athletes is certainly alarming, especially from the perspective of the adverse health effects that these substances have on young people’s health [ 23 ]. Namely, PEDs usage is associated with heart diseases, mental health disorders, diabetes, cancer, masculinization in females, and deficiency of naturally produced androgens in males [ 19 , 24 , 25 , 26 ].…”

“…Namely, PEDs usage is associated with heart diseases, mental health disorders, diabetes, cancer, masculinization in females, and deficiency of naturally produced androgens in males [ 19 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Understanding why young amateur athletes tend to use PEDs contributes to evidence-based planning of antidoping preventive programs, because effective interventions need to target factors causally related to the PEDs usage [ 23 ]. As a result of that, it is highly important to understand and investigate factors that are potentially associated with the PEDs usage or factors with possible causal relationship with PEDs [ 27 ].…”