Reevaluating the Evidence for Middle Woodland Maize From the Holding Site

Abstract

Maize fragments recovered from the Middle Woodland Holding site (11MS118) in the American Bottom have for several decades been recognized as the oldest directly dated maize east of the Mississippi River. A reevaluation of maize samples from this site indicates that finding was in error. Carbon isotope assessment (δ13C ratios) run on the original samples dated in 1994 indicated that they were not maize. Six additional samples originally identified as maize were submitted to the Illinois State Geological Survey for carbon ratio assessment and direct accelerated mass spectrometry dating. Three of the fragments, including one from the same feature dated previously, returned non-maize δ13C ratios. The other three samples were correctly identified as maize, but all returned post–A.D. 900 dates. These results invalidate the original report of Middle Woodland maize at Holding and support our ongoing reevaluations of maize histories in the American Bottom and western Illinois, which show that it was not an important cultivated crop plant in this part of the Midwest until about A.D. 900.

Isotopic Confirmation of the Timing and Intensity of Maize Consumption in Greater Cahokia

“…Thus, the most recent regional archaeobotanical summary by Simon and Parker (2006) postulated a low level of maize and EAC agriculture for Middle and Late Woodland groups. Our understanding of regional maize history shifted again when Simon (2014, 2017) determined that maize could not be reliably identified prior to AD 900. Our research builds on this work and seeks to identify and better understand the role of maize in the context of Cahokia and the American Bottom.…”

Colonization history of the Western Corn Rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera) in North America: insights from random forest ABC using microsatellite data

“…However, this time frame does strikingly correspond to the intensification of maize cultivation in the American Southwest, Great Plains, and Eastern Woodlands that began around 900 -1000 CE (Fritz 1990;Boyd et al 2008;Smith 2017). This widespread intensification of maize use was explosive (Simon 2017), and was probably related to the development of higher yielding varieties, which formed the basis of maizedominated agricultural systems and more complex societies after 1000 CE (Smith 2017). Our analysis suggests that the most recent WCR population in the Colorado Great Plains region originated from colonization northward from New Mexico/Texas in the first half of the nineteenth century (Fig.…”

“…The cultivation of maize slowly expanded northward to reach the present-day states of Arizona and New Mexico, USA around 4,100 BP (Merrill et al 2009;da Fonseca et al 2015), and became an important part of the diet of some groups in the Four Corners region between 2,400 and 3,000 BP (Coltrain et al 2010;Smith 2017). The selection of new variants that were better adapted to temperate climates helped to spread maize further into the northern USA and Canada by around 2,000 years BP (Fritz 1990;Hart et al 2007;Tenaillon and Charcosset 2011), but it was a minor crop throughout America north of Mexico before 900 to 1000 CE (Boyd et al 2008;Simon 2017;Smith 2017). A large increase in maize cultivation by European migrants in North America occurred in the nineteenth century, probably helped by development of new cultivars (Anderson and Brown 1952;Doebley et al 1988).…”

Colonization history of the western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera) in North America: insights from random forest ABC using microsatellite data

“…The cultivation of maize slowly expanded northward to reach the present-day states of Arizona and New Mexico, USA around 4100 BP (Merrill et al 2009;da Fonseca et al 2015), and became an important part of the diet of some groups in the Four Corners region between 2400 and 3000 BP (Coltrain et al 2010;Smith 2017). The selection of new variants that were better adapted to temperate climates helped to spread maize further into the northern USA and Canada by around 2000 years BP (Fritz 1990;Hart et al 2007;Tenaillon and Charcosset 2011), but it was a minor crop throughout America north of Mexico before 900-1000 CE (Boyd et al 2008;Simon 2017;Smith 2017). A large increase in maize cultivation by European migrants in North America occurred in the nineteenth century, probably helped by development of new cultivars (Anderson and Brown 1952;Doebley et al 1988).…”