“…Abnormalities that have been observed in the LC from human depressives (Klimek et al, 1997;Ordway et al, 1994aOrdway et al, , 1994bOrdway et al, , 2003Zhu et al, 1999) can be reproduced, in part, by chronic stress or pharmacological depletion of norepinephrine in rats (Cubells et al, 1995;Lee et al, 1983;Melia et al, 1992;Torda et al, 1985;U'Prichard et al, 1979;Wang et al, 1998;Zafar et al, 1997). Given that stress activates the LC in laboratory animals (Pavcovich et al, 1990), that chronic stress depletes norepinephrine in the LC (Weiss and Simson, 1986), and that stress is a common precipitator of depression in humans, it seems possible that depression may be associated with elevated excitatory input to the LC.…”