Reconstructing human–landscape interactions in the context of ancient iron smelting on Elba Island, Italy, using sedimentological evidence

Abstract

We reconstruct human–landscape interactions in the context of ancient bloomery smelting on Elba Island, Tyrrhenian Sea, based on sedimentological evidence. Elba was, together with Populonia, the center of iron production in antiquity (mid‐6th century B.C.E. to 1st century C.E.). The sediment sequences obtained by vibracoring in the Campo plain reveal that the Holocene transgression triggered aggradation during the Early–Middle Holocene (>5.4 ka cal BP). Nevertheless, wetland conditions prevailed in low‐lying areas during Roman times. Correspondingly, ancient smelting sites are found only on elevated areas along the edge of the plain. The palaeolandscape thus plays a key role in understanding location factors for smelting sites in antiquity. Our sediment sequences indicate that during Etrusco–Roman times (2.4–2.0 ka cal BP) morphodynamics on the island increased, as is evident from the alteration of slope deposits and slack water deposits in upstream positions, and the change from lacustrine to alluvial deposition in downstream areas. The charcoal record shows that fire dynamics increased simultaneously. The sediments that are synsedimentary to the ancient smelting period show significantly increased arsenic contents and high sediment magnetic susceptibility, whereas overall concentrations of heavy metals remain in the range of the geogenic background signal.

The furnace and the goat—A spatio-temporal model of the fuelwood requirement for iron metallurgy on Elba Island, 4th century BCE to 2nd century ce

“…Second, information from (limited) pollen data indicates a shift in the species composition—from deciduous oak to woody shrubland species (Ericaceae) —rather than a loss of woodland cover. Erica arborea and Arbutus were common fuelwood species in Etruscan and Roman metallurgy [ 61 , 86 ]. Sedimentological analysis of alluvial sediments have shown that morphodynamics—i.e.…”

“…the deposition of high-magnitude flood layers, slope deposits, and gravel—in the Campo plain (central Elba) increased during the Roman smelting period. Nevertheless, there is no distinct evidence of island-wide clear-cutting [ 61 ]. Reasons other than fuelwood scarcity—such as upheaval in the Roman world between the Republic and the Empire—might have fostered the abandonment of smelting sites.…”

“…The narrative may build on the perception of the modern landscape on Elba rather than on a sensitive reconstruction of the ancient conditions. However, the scale of the fuelwood requirement on Elba shows that smelting might have importantly contributed to changes in the landscape, as shown for morphodynamics by Becker et al [ 61 ].…”

“…Although data from palynological records indicate a decline in oak pollen [ 57 ], they do not suggest the disappearance of arboreal species [ 58 – 60 ]. Sedimentological data from alluvial deposits—surely only a limited direct indicator of deforestation—at least show that morphodynamics increased during the period of Roman iron smelting on Elba [ 61 ]. However, inconsistency in evidence for the ‘deforestation narrative’ of Elba Island indicate the need for additional data.…”

“…7.5.8–9). Erica arborea —a common wood species on Elba that was preferred by smelters [ 61 , 86 ]—is more palatable than other macchia species [ 87 , 88 ], due to the high tannin demand of goats.…”