Reconsidering the role of patriarchy in upholding female genital modifications: analysis of contemporary and pre-industrial societies

Abstract

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), customary female genital modification practices common in parts of Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Middle East are inherently patriarchal: they reflect deep-rooted inequality between the sexes characterized by male dominance and constitute an extreme form of discrimination against women. However, scholars have noted that while many societies have genital modification rites only for boys, with no equivalent rite for girls, the inverse does not hold. Rather, almost all societies that practice ritual female genital modification also practice ritual male genital modification, often for comparable reasons on children of similar ages, with the female rites led by women and the male rites led by men. In contrast, then, to the situation for boys in various cultures, girls are not singled out for genital modification on account of their sex or gender; nor do the social meanings of the female rites necessarily reflect a lower status. In some cases, the women’s rite serves to promote female within-sex bonding and network building—as the men’s rite typically does for males—thereby counterbalancing gendered asymmetries in political power and weakening male dominance in certain spheres. In such cases, and to that extent, the female rites can be described as counter-patriarchal. Selective efforts to discourage female genital modifications may thus inadvertently undermine women-centered communal networks while leaving male bonding rites intact. Scholars and activists should not rely on misleading generalizations from the WHO about the relationship between genital cutting and the social positioning of women as compared to men. To illustrate the complexity of this relationship, we compare patterns of practice across contemporary societies while also highlighting anthropological data regarding pre-industrial societies. Regarding the latter, we find no association between the presence of a female initiation rite and a key aspect of patriarchy as it is classically understood, namely, social endorsement of a gendered double-standard regarding premarital sexual activity. We situate this finding within the broader literature and discuss potential implications.

Uptake and determinants of childhood vaccination status among children aged 0–12 months in three West African countries

“…This could be attributed to cultural influences in various African settings. In many instances, the decision of the family solely depends on the man, reflecting the patriarchal nature of African societies [ 25 , 33 ]. This is a system where the educational levels of men as heads of households/families continuous to be influenced by culture and tradition.…”

Developing a Notion on Sexism in the English Language

“…Thus there is inequality in all aspects of discrimination on the basis of sex of these individuals. There is a lot of abusive behavior towards women which brings injustice to them [17]. There is discrimination in the work field sometimes as men are considered to be suitable for certain situations.…”

Health outcomes and female genital mutilation/cutting: how much is due to the cutting itself?

“…Adverse outcomes that have been associated with FGM/C of various types include obstetric, gynecologic, sexual, and psychologic harms to health and well-being [2]. Among those who endorse FGM/C, it is widely believed that the practice helps to imbue a sense of belonging, often related to cultural identity (e.g., ethnic, religious, or gender-based), while also increasing one's social status, respectability, and, among other things, perceived sexual virtue or desirability according to local standards (e.g., enhancing sexual power or agency in some groups; tempering "excess" sexual desire or promoting virginity in others) [3][4][5][6]. In any case, where FGM/C is a dominant social norm or seen as a prerequisite for important life goods (e.g., recognition as an adult, eligibility for marriage), a lack of FGM/C is often heavily stigmatized, with negative social consequences for challenging the practice or associated cultural scripts [7][8][9].…”