Recent updates on codeine

Bhandari, Monika; Bhandari, Anil; Aakanksha, Bhandari

doi:10.4103/2229-4708.81082

Cited by 25 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…Codeine is an alkaloid prepared from opium poppy ( Papaver somniferum ) by methylation. Heroin produced from opium often contains small amounts of codeine as an impurity [ 15 , 16 ]. Some research suggests that some commercial morphine sulfate preparations may also contain codeine, while other researchers have suggested that codeine is a minor metabolite of morphine sulfate in humans [ 14 – 16 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Heroin produced from opium often contains small amounts of codeine as an impurity [ 15 , 16 ]. Some research suggests that some commercial morphine sulfate preparations may also contain codeine, while other researchers have suggested that codeine is a minor metabolite of morphine sulfate in humans [ 14 – 16 ]. When a morphine to codeine ratio of greater than one is encountered, additional toxicological testing for 6-AM may be all that is needed to discern a case of heroin use [ 1 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Identifying cases of heroin toxicity where 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) is not detected by toxicological analyses

Ellis

McGwin

Davis

et al. 2016

Forensic Sci Med Pathol

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PurposeHeroin has a half-life of 2–6 min and is metabolized too quickly to be detected in autopsy samples. The presence of 6-acetylmophine (6-AM) in urine, blood, or other samples is convincing evidence of heroin use by a decedent, but 6-AM itself has a half-life of 6–25 min before it is hydrolyzed to morphine, so 6-AM may not be present in sufficient concentration to detect in postmortem samples. Codeine is often present in heroin preparations as an impurity and is not a metabolite of heroin. Studies report that a ratio of morphine to codeine greater than one indicates heroin use. We hypothesize that the ratio of morphine to codeine in our decedents abusing drugs intravenously will be no different in individuals with 6-AM present than in individuals where no 6-AM is detected, and we report our study of this hypothesis.MethodsAll accidental deaths investigated by the Jefferson County Coroner/Medical Examiner Office from 2010 to 2013 with morphine detected in blood samples collected at autopsy were reviewed. Five deaths where trauma caused or contributed to death were excluded from the review. The presence or absence of 6-AM and the concentrations of morphine and codeine were recorded for each case. The ratio of morphine to codeine was calculated for all decedents. Any individual in whom no morphine or codeine was detected in a postmortem sample was excluded from further study. Absence or presence of drug paraphernalia or evidence of intravascular (IV) drug use was documented in each case to identify IV drug users. The proportion of the IV drug users with and without 6-AM present in a postmortem sample was compared to the M/C ratio for the individuals.ResultsOf the 230 deaths included in the analysis, 103 IV drug users with quantifiable morphine and codeine in a postmortem sample were identified allowing for calculation of an M/C ratio. In these IV drug users, the M/C ratio was greater than 1 in 98 % of decedents. When controlling for the absence or presence of 6-AM there was no statistically significant difference in the proportion of IV drug users when compared to non IV drug users with an M/C ratio of greater than 1 (p = 1.000).ConclusionThe M/C ratio in IV drug users, if greater than 1, is seen in deaths due to heroin toxicity where 6-AM is detected in a postmortem sample. This study provides evidence that a M/C ratio greater than one in an IV drug user is evidence of a death due to heroin toxicity even if 6-AM is not detected in the blood. Using the M/C ratio, in addition to scene and autopsy findings, provides sufficient evidence to show heroin is the source of the morphine and codeine. Listing heroin as a cause or contributing factor in deaths with evidence of IV drug abuse and where the M/C ratio exceeds 1 will improve identification of heroin fatalities, which will allow better allocation of resources for public health initiatives.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Identifying cases of heroin toxicity where 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) is not detected by toxicological analyses

Ellis

McGwin

Davis

et al. 2016

Forensic Sci Med Pathol

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“…Codeine is metabolised to morphine in animal body. [ 8 ] Thebaine Papaver somniferum Opiate alkaloid Similar mode of action to morphine. Codeine is metabolised to morphine in animal body.…”

Section: Plant-based Biomolecules With Antiviral Activitiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Genomics approaches to synthesize plant-based biomolecules for therapeutic applications to combat SARS-CoV-2

et al. 2020

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COVID-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is devastative to the humankind for which neither vaccines nor precise therapeutic molecules for treatment are identified. The search for new drugs and repurposing of existing drugs are being performed; however, at the same time, research on plants to identify novel therapeutic compounds or testing the existing ones is progressing at a slower phase. In this context, genomics and biotechnology offer various tools and strategies to manipulate plants for producing those complex biopharmaceutical products. This review enumerates the scope for research on plant-based molecules for their potential application in treating SARS-CoV-2 infection. Strategies to edit gene and genome, overexpression and silencing approaches, and molecular breeding for producing target biomolecules in the plant system are discussed in detail. Altogether, the present review provides a roadmap for expediting research on using plants as a novel source of active biomolecules having therapeutic applications.

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“…. " 19 Some litigants even addressed the court about racial biases. One of the few women of color who counter-sued for divorce, Rose Legge, argued with the judge in her trial, complaining that the jury "are white men and they ought not to judge on flimsy evidence."…”

Section: Did Race Matter?mentioning

confidence: 99%

‘Vindictiveness on Account of Colour’?: Race, Gender, and Class at the English Divorce Court, 1872–1939

Frost

2020

Genealogy

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This article uses 116 divorce or separation cases involving people of color between 1872 and 1940 to interrogate the role of the state in adjudicating racially mixed marriages in Britain. These examples demonstrate the rising population of imperial subjects within the U.K., but also that marital cases could reverse in-migration, due to embarrassment and expense for all parties. In addition, gender and class factors limited the impact of race in the court. Men’s advantages in bringing cases overcame some racial prejudices, and rich men, whatever their color, could hire effective representation. Race only impacted divorce cases when women could play on stereotypes of violent men, or when men of color were co-respondents and thus broke up homes. Still, the number of undefended cases limited the influence of race in most divorce suits.

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Recent updates on codeine

Cited by 25 publications

References 14 publications

Identifying cases of heroin toxicity where 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) is not detected by toxicological analyses

Identifying cases of heroin toxicity where 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM) is not detected by toxicological analyses

Genomics approaches to synthesize plant-based biomolecules for therapeutic applications to combat SARS-CoV-2

‘Vindictiveness on Account of Colour’?: Race, Gender, and Class at the English Divorce Court, 1872–1939

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