Abstract:Clinical studies have identified a cytokine storm in the third stage of disease progression in critical ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 . Hence, effectively suppressing the uncontrolled immune response of the host towards the invaded viruses in a cytokine storm is a critical step to prevent the deterioration of patient conditions and decrease the rate of mortality. Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are found to be effective for the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients… Show more
“…Nevertheless, apart from tocilizumab, other several monoclonal antibodies potentially preventing the biological effects of IL-6 (like Sarilumab, Siltuximab, Sirukumab, Clazakizumabo, Olokizumab, Levilimab) are under investigation or being tested in clinical trials (49). More interestingly, also a broad spectrum of cytokines/chemokines inhibitors not specifically targeting IL-6 and its secretion pathways was applied to counteract COVID-19.…”
Section: The Il-6-cxcl10-macrophages Networkmentioning
SARS-COV-2 virus is responsible for the ongoing devastating pandemic. Since the early phase of the pandemic, the “cytokine-storm” appeared a peculiar aspect of SARS-COV-2 infection which, at least in the severe cases, is responsible for respiratory treat damage and subsequent multi-organ failure. The efforts made in the last few months elucidated that the cytokine-storm results from a complex network involving cytokines/chemokines/infiltrating-immune-cells which orchestrate the aberrant immune response in COVID-19. Clinical and experimental studies aimed at depicting a potential “immune signature” of SARS-COV-2, identified three main “actors,” namely the cytokine IL-6, the chemokine CXCL10 and the infiltrating immune cell type macrophages. Although other cytokines, chemokines and infiltrating immune cells are deeply involved and their role should not be neglected, based on currently available data, IL-6, CXCL10, and infiltrating macrophages could be considered prototype factors representing each component of the immune system. It rapidly became clear that a strong and continuous interplay among the three components of the immune response is mandatory in order to produce a severe clinical course of the disease. Indeed, while IL-6, CXCL10 and macrophages alone would not be able to fully drive the onset and maintenance of the cytokine-storm, the establishment of a IL-6/CXCL10/macrophages axis is crucial in driving the sequence of events characterizing this condition. The present review is specifically aimed at overviewing current evidences provided by both in vitro and in vivo studies addressing the issue of the interplay among IL-6, CXCL10 and macrophages in the onset and progression of cytokine storm. SARS-COV-2 infection and the “cytokine storm.”
“…Nevertheless, apart from tocilizumab, other several monoclonal antibodies potentially preventing the biological effects of IL-6 (like Sarilumab, Siltuximab, Sirukumab, Clazakizumabo, Olokizumab, Levilimab) are under investigation or being tested in clinical trials (49). More interestingly, also a broad spectrum of cytokines/chemokines inhibitors not specifically targeting IL-6 and its secretion pathways was applied to counteract COVID-19.…”
Section: The Il-6-cxcl10-macrophages Networkmentioning
SARS-COV-2 virus is responsible for the ongoing devastating pandemic. Since the early phase of the pandemic, the “cytokine-storm” appeared a peculiar aspect of SARS-COV-2 infection which, at least in the severe cases, is responsible for respiratory treat damage and subsequent multi-organ failure. The efforts made in the last few months elucidated that the cytokine-storm results from a complex network involving cytokines/chemokines/infiltrating-immune-cells which orchestrate the aberrant immune response in COVID-19. Clinical and experimental studies aimed at depicting a potential “immune signature” of SARS-COV-2, identified three main “actors,” namely the cytokine IL-6, the chemokine CXCL10 and the infiltrating immune cell type macrophages. Although other cytokines, chemokines and infiltrating immune cells are deeply involved and their role should not be neglected, based on currently available data, IL-6, CXCL10, and infiltrating macrophages could be considered prototype factors representing each component of the immune system. It rapidly became clear that a strong and continuous interplay among the three components of the immune response is mandatory in order to produce a severe clinical course of the disease. Indeed, while IL-6, CXCL10 and macrophages alone would not be able to fully drive the onset and maintenance of the cytokine-storm, the establishment of a IL-6/CXCL10/macrophages axis is crucial in driving the sequence of events characterizing this condition. The present review is specifically aimed at overviewing current evidences provided by both in vitro and in vivo studies addressing the issue of the interplay among IL-6, CXCL10 and macrophages in the onset and progression of cytokine storm. SARS-COV-2 infection and the “cytokine storm.”
“…In this respect, WHO Emergency Use Listing (EUL) has reported the administration of at least thirteen different vaccines (e.g., Pfizer/BioNtech, AstraZeneca/AZD1222, Janssen/Ad26.COV 2.S, and Moderna). Besides, recent studies have focused on developing effective therapeutic agents against COVID -19, such as antiviral drugs and antibody therapy [ 48 , 49 ]; however, the pivotal role of consuming nutrients, vitamins, and minerals cannot be ignored [ 50 ]. Fig.…”
The escalating prevalence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) worldwide, with an increased rate of morbidity and mortality, highlights an urgent need to develop more effective therapeutic interventions. Despite the authorized treatment against COVID-19 by the European Union (EU), the safety and effectiveness of this therapeutic strategy for a wide variety of patients have remained a significant challenge. In this respect, micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals, as essential factors, can be considered for improving the function of the immune system and accelerating the treatment procedure. Dietary supplements can attenuate vascular and inflammatory manifestations related to infectious diseases in large part due to their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Recently, it has been revealed that poor nutritional status may be one of the notable risk factors in severe COVID-19 infections. In the current review, we focus on the micronutrient therapy of COVID-19 patients and provide a comprehensive insight into the essential vitamins/minerals and their role in controlling the severity of the COVID-19 infection. We also discuss the recent advancements, challenges, negative and positive outcomes in relevance to this approach.
“…Rather than aiming at disrupting the virus lifecycle, molecules that target the host immune system were repurposed to treat COVID-19, apparently alleviating symptoms like cytokine storm and inflammation [22] . IL-6 antagonists levilimab, tocilizumab, sarilumab, olokizumab, and siltuximab, are being studied against COVID-19 [23] . Given the immune system's function in host defence, immunomodulation may be a viable technique for combating COVID-19, particularly when considering the patient's immune system's condition at different stages of the disease.…”
Section: Immunotherapeutic Approaches Against Sars-cov-2 Based On Its Immunopathologymentioning
Researchers from the world over are working to create prophylactic and therapeutic interventions to combat the COVID-19 global healthcare crisis. The current therapeutic options against the COVID-19 include repurposed drugs aimed at targets other than virus-specific proteins. Antibody-based therapeutics carry a lot of promise, and there are several of these candidates for COVID-19 treatment currently being investigated in the preclinical and clinical research stages around the world. The viral spike protein (S protein) appears to be the main target of antibody development candidates, with the majority being monoclonal antibodies. Several antibody candidates targeting the SARS-CoV-2 S protein include LY-CoV555, REGN-COV2, JS016, TY027, CT-P59, BRII-196, BRII-198 and SCTA01. These neutralizing antibodies will treat COVID-19 and possibly future coronavirus infections. Future studies should focus on effective immune-therapeutics and immunomodulators with the purpose of developing specific, affordable, and cost-effective prophylactic and treatment regimens to fight the COVID-19 globally.
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