Recent progress in the fabrication techniques of 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering

Abstract

Significant advances have been made in the field of tissue engineering (TE), especially in the synthesis of three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds for replacing damaged tissues and organs in laboratory conditions. However, the gaps in knowledge in exploiting these techniques in preclinical trials and beyond and, in particular, in practical scenarios (e.g., replacing real body organs) have not been discussed well in the existing literature. Furthermore, it is observed in the literature that while new techniques for the synthesis of 3D TE scaffold have been developed, some of the earlier techniques are still being used. This implies that the advantages offered by a more recent and advanced technique as compared to the earlier ones are not obvious, and these should be discussed in detail. For example, one needs to be aware of the reason, if any, behind the superiority of traditional electrospinning technique over recent advances in 3D printing technique for the production of 3D scaffolds given the popularity of the former over the latter, indicated by the number of publications in the respective areas. Keeping these points in mind, this review aims to demonstrate the ongoing trend in TE based on the scaffold fabrication techniques, focusing mostly, on the two most widely used techniques, namely, electrospinning and 3D printing, with a special emphasis on preclinical trials and beyond. In this context, the advantages, disadvantages, flexibilities and limitations of the relevant techniques (electrospinner and 3D printer) are discussed. The paper also critically analyzes the applicability, restrictions, and future demands of these techniques in TE including their applications in generating whole body organs. It is concluded that combining these knowledge gaps with the existing body of knowledge on the preparation of laboratory scale 3D scaffolds, would deliver a much better understanding in the future for scientists who are interested in these techniques.

Advances in Osteoporotic Bone Tissue Engineering

“…An innovative area of research concerning scaffold designing and fabrication is the use of additive manufacturing technologies (3D printing) [ 8 ] which guides the path in developing 3D structures trough cutting edge methods utilizing various biomaterials [ 61 ]. Advances in this field of research are providing the methods to produce complex and highly specialized 3D structures [ 31 ] serving as templates in providing a suitable environment for bone tissue regeneration [ 9 ].…”

“…3D printing is a complex process with multiple engineering aspects to consider, due to the material type and 3D structure fabrication method when choosing the most suitable for specific damage or defect [ 61 ] and due to facing competition from injectable scaffolds in the form of hydrogels, micro or nanospheres [ 8 ]. In certain situations, when direct printing is problematic, such as for instance for the direct printing of the COLL/HA composite gel, the use of a precursor gel based on collagen and calcium hydroxide can be used and the printed microstructured patterns are simultaneously cross-linked with glutaraldehyde and calcium hydroxide are transformed into hydroxyapatite, both processes occurring as a consequence of dipping them into glutaraldehyde solution in phosphate buffer saline or SBF [ 41 ].…”

Modeling the Mechanobiology of Cancer Cell Migration Using 3D Biomimetic Hydrogels

“…Alternative methods based on rapid prototyping (RP), such as stereolithography [180], fused deposition modeling [181] or selective laser sintering [182] allow more accurate 3D scaffold generation, by relying on a layer by layer fabrication process [183,184]. Table 1 summarizes the advantages, drawbacks, materials and main applications of the principal scaffold fabrication techniques [174,179,[185][186][187].…”

Multifunctional Biopolymers‐Based Composite Materials for Biomedical Applications: A Systematic Review

“…[25] However, the natural and synthetic both types of biopolymers can be focused to construct 3D scaffolds for reconstructing soft and hard tissues, when composited with suitable filler or matrices. [26,27] The approach of enforcing nanocomposites in biopolymeric matrices is being predictable to overcome the challenges of thermal properties and mechanical stability. Beside added property or function improvement by means of suitable nanofiller, the intend of scaffolds is significant in tissue engineering to convey the requisite substantial interconnections for proliferation and infiltration of cell.…”