Recent Advances in the Development of Biosensors for Malaria Diagnosis

Abstract

The impact of malaria on global health has continually prompted the need to develop more effective diagnostic strategies that could overcome deficiencies in accurate and early detection. In this review, we examine the various biosensor-based methods for malaria diagnostic biomarkers, namely; Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP-2), parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH), aldolase, glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), and the biocrystal hemozoin. The models that demonstrate a potential for field application have been discussed, looking at the fabrication and analytical performance characteristics, including (but not exclusively limited to): response time, sensitivity, detection limit, linear range, and storage stability, which are first summarized in a tabular form and then described in detail. The conclusion summarizes the state-of-the-art technologies applied in the field, the current challenges and the emerging prospects for malaria biosensors.Sensors 2020, 20, 799 2 of 21 emergence and spread of drug resistance. It could also reduce the pool of individuals who can contribute to malaria transmission [5].To date, many technologies have attempted to circumvent the challenges in malaria diagnostics with technologies that address point-of-care needs and early stage asymptomatic detection. In this review, we first comprehensively summarize the biomarkers targeted during the course of malaria with emphasis on the importance of sensitive early detection. Next, we provide an overview of the recent advances in biosensor technologies for the detection of the most targeted biomarkers, focusing on: development, analytical performances, and suitability for point of care testing. The prevailing challenges and future outlook of the use of these technologies in the field are also highlighted. Parasite Development in Humans, Biomarkers, and DiagnosisThe developmental cycle of Plasmodium species that infect humans is briefly illustrated in Figure 1 [6]. The cycle begins with the injection of sporozoites into the host's circulation by an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The sporozoites then target and enter hepatocytes where they multiply and differentiate into merozoites. This stage of the parasite life cycle is known as pre-erythrocytic. In infections involving P. vivax and P. ovale, dormant forms of the liver stage, called hypnozoites may persist in the liver [7] and cause relapse of the infection, thereby making it difficult to eradicate. The pre-erythrocytic stage is essential in the establishment of malaria infection. This stage is asymptomatic, however, it is difficult for diagnostic tools to detect sporozoites because hepatocytes invasion occurs within 30-45 min after sporozoites are inoculated by the infected mosquito [8,9]. This short time and low numbers of sporozoites injected leaves little time for their detection. Some efforts in finding biomarkers for detection of early liver stage or the dormant form have identified the Plasmodium liver-specific protein 2 (LISP2) [10,11]. The sporozoite surface circum...

Conductive Metal-Organic Frameworks for Amperometric Sensing of Paracetamol

“…From Figure 5B, it can be seen that the peak current of PA is in a linear dynamic range with its concentration. The regression equation (Goyal and Singh, 2006;Krampa et al, 2018;Xu et al, 2019) for the region is I pa (µA) = 0.1473c(µM) + 1.9019 (R 2 = 0.9993), the limit of determination is near 5µM. The limit of determination of the NiCu-CAT/GCE is similar to some electrochemical sensors reported using electrochemical method for detecting paracetamol (Fu et al, 2015(Fu et al, , 2018a.…”

Biosensing based on field-effect transistors (FET): Recent progress and challenges

“…To control transmission dynamics, it is necessary to detect this disease early even in patients without any symptoms [ 135 ]. Up to the present time, a large number of researchers have tried to overcome the difficulties in malaria diagnostics with technologies that consider point-of-care demands and early-stage detection [ 136 ]. But amongst these novel techniques, biosensors seem to be the most sensitive and rapid ones.…”

Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Tests: Literary Review and Recommendation for a Quality Assurance, Quality Control Algorithm

“…Spectroscopy can also be utilized that has promising benefits on its level of detection, but still requires an antigen like LDH and does not necessarily help with the austere challenges [ 162 ]. However, there is large desire for portable biosensors that utilize malaria enzymatic assays ( HRP 2, LDH, aldolase), hemozoin, or other malaria biomarkers to provide a readout in a manner analogous to a glucometer [ 163 ]. These technologies are working on decreasing cost and size, and accuracy, but RDTs will remain a mainstay for a long time to come.…”