Recent advancements in snake antivenom production

Rathore, Anurag S.; Kumar, Ramesh; Tiwari, Om Shanker

doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124478

Cited by 6 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 116 publications

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“…The venom selection to fabricate polyspecific antivenoms should be based on the relationship between conservation and variation of the antigenic and immunogenic features of venoms from the snakes that pose a threat to public health and are medically important in the region where the antivenoms are intended to be used. Thus, the selection of appropriate venoms for immunization purposes should be done based on detailed knowledge of the medical relevance of the snake species and their venom immunological relatedness ( WHO, 2010 ; León et al, 2011 ; Lauridsen et al, 2016 ; WHO, 2016 ; Ochola et al, 2019 ; Rathore et al, 2023 ). This represents a challenging task due to venom variation and species relationships within this genus ( Ainsworth et al, 2018 ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Intrageneric cross-reactivity of monospecific rabbit antisera against venoms of mamba (Elapidae: Dendroaspis spp.) snakes

Gómez,

Sánchez,

Durán

et al. 2024

Toxicon: X

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Intrageneric cross-reactivity of monospecific rabbit antisera against venoms of mamba (Elapidae: Dendroaspis spp.) snakes

Gómez,

Sánchez,

Durán

et al. 2024

Toxicon: X

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“…This limited observation to a large range of median lethal dose (LD50) (depending on where venom is injected in an organism) and attempting to figure out if these LD50 are applicable to humans due to variable physiology compared to non-human models [ 27 ]. The creation of antivenom is vastly similar to how it was when it was first conceptualised in 1897—injecting a small amount of venom into a large animal, typically either a domestic horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) or sheep ( Ovis aries ), allowing the immune system to respond and then collecting the antibodies from the animal [ 28 , 29 ]. Now, access to affordable and rapidly advancing technologies are enabling these traditional practices to evolve and expand beyond their capabilities.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Slowly Making Sense: A Review of the Two-Step Venom System within Slow (Nycticebus spp.) and Pygmy Lorises (Xanthonycticebus spp.)

Fitzpatrick,

Ligabue-Braun,

Nekaris

2023

Toxins

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Since the early 2000s, studies of the evolution of venom within animals have rapidly expanded, offering new revelations on the origins and development of venom within various species. The venomous mammals represent excellent opportunities to study venom evolution due to the varying functional usages, the unusual distribution of venom across unrelated mammals and the diverse variety of delivery systems. A group of mammals that excellently represents a combination of these traits are the slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy lorises (Xanthonycticebus spp.) of south-east Asia, which possess the only confirmed two-step venom system. These taxa also present one of the most intriguing mixes of toxic symptoms (cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity) and functional usages (intraspecific competition and ectoparasitic defence) seen in extant animals. We still lack many pieces of the puzzle in understanding how this venom system works, why it evolved what is involved in the venom system and what triggers the toxic components to work. Here, we review available data building upon a decade of research on this topic, focusing especially on why and how this venom system may have evolved. We discuss that research now suggests that venom in slow lorises has a sophisticated set of multiple uses in both intraspecific competition and the potential to disrupt the immune system of targets; we suggest that an exudate diet reveals several toxic plants consumed by slow and pygmy lorises that could be sequestered into their venom and which may help heal venomous bite wounds; we provide the most up-to-date visual model of the brachial gland exudate secretion protein (BGEsp); and we discuss research on a complement component 1r (C1R) protein in saliva that may solve the mystery of what activates the toxicity of slow and pygmy loris venom. We conclude that the slow and pygmy lorises possess amongst the most complex venom system in extant animals, and while we have still a lot more to understand about their venom system, we are close to a breakthrough, particularly with current technological advances.

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“…Understanding the action mechanisms of animal venoms is very important for the effective treatment of intoxication by venomous animals. Currently, the most effective way to treat bites from venomous animals is the use of antisera, which is obtained by immunizing large mammals (mainly horses) with small doses of venom [17,18]. Although very effective, this method has several disadvantages and requires the development of new treatments based on other molecular mechanisms [19,20].…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%