“…These works use the language of honor/shame cultures , following on from Ruth Benedict (1946) and Eugene Nida (1954), drawing on Margaret Mead’s (2003/1937) distinction between cultures that use shame as a key external sanction and those which depend on guilt as an internal sanction. However, as later writings have pointed out (e.g., Cozens, 2018; Dale, 2020; Merz, 2020), a reliance on these typologies of culture masks the reality that all cultures have the values of honor and shame. The perception and weight given to them vary according to variables such as age, context, social status, level of education, and gender.…”