Abstract. It has been frequently found that lacustrine branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (brGDGT)-derived temperatures are
warm-season-biased relative to measured mean annual air temperature (AT) in
the middle to high latitudes, the mechanism of which, however, is not very
clear. Here, we investigated the brGDGTs from catchment soils, suspended
particulate matter (SPM) and surface sediments in different water depths in
Gonghai Lake in northern China to explore this question. Our results showed
that the brGDGT distribution in sediments resembled that in the SPM but
differed from the surrounding soils, suggesting a substantial aquatic origin
of the brGDGTs in the lake. Moreover, the increase in brGDGT content and
decrease in methylation index with water depth in sediments suggested more
contribution of aquatic brGDGTs produced from deep or bottom waters. Therefore,
established lake-specific calibrations were applied to estimate local mean
annual AT. As usual, the estimates were significantly higher than the
measured mean annual AT. However, they were similar to (and thus actually
reflected) the mean annual lake water temperature (LWT). Interestingly, the
mean annual LWT is close to the measured mean warm-season AT, thus
suggesting that the apparent warm-season bias of lacustrine brGDGT-derived
temperatures could be caused by the discrepancy between AT and LWT. In our
study region, ice forms at the lake surface during winter, leading to
isolation of the underlying lake water from air and hence higher LWT than
AT, while LWT basically follows AT during warm seasons when ice disappears.
Therefore, we think that lacustrine brGDGTs actually reflected the mean
annual LWT, which is higher than the mean annual AT in our study location.
Since the decoupling between LWT and AT in winter due to ice formation is a
universal physical phenomenon in the middle to high latitudes, we propose this
phenomenon could be also the reason for the widely observed warm-season bias
of brGDGT-derived temperatures in other seasonally surface ice-forming
lakes, especially in shallow lakes.