Racial and Gender-Based Differences in COVID-19

Abstract

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has become a global health crisis since its first appearance in Wuhan, China. Current epidemiological studies suggest that COVID-19 affects older patients with multiple comorbidities, such as hypertension, obesity, and chronic lung diseases. The differences in the incidence and severity of COVID-19 are likely to be multifaceted, depending on various biological, social, and economical factors. Specifically, the socioeconomic differences and psychological impact of COVID-19 affecting males and females are essential in pandemic mitigation and preparedness. Previous clinical studies have shown that females are less susceptible to acquire viral infections and reduced cytokine production. Female patients have a higher macrophage and neutrophil activity as well as antibody production and response. Furthermore, in-vivo studies of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) showed higher expression in the kidneys of male than female patients, which may explain the differences in susceptibility and progression of COVID-19 between male and female patients. However, it remains unknown whether the expression of ACE2 differs in the lungs of male or female patients. Disparities in healthcare access and socioeconomic status between ethnic groups may influence COVID-19 rates. Ethnic groups often have higher levels of medical comorbidities and lower socioeconomic status, which may increase their risk of contracting COVID-19 through weak cell-mediated immunity. In this article, we examine the current literature on the gender and racial differences among COVID-19 patients and further examine the possible biological mechanisms underlying these differences.

Symptoms and Characteristics Which Require Attention During COVID-19 Screening at a Port of Entry

“…We noted that males were more likely to be confirmed with COVID-19 infection, which is frequently reported elsewhere. 6 8 9 While some studies indicate that male sex is also associated with severe disease course and death, 6 10 severe cases were rare and poorly documented among the travelers included in the current study, making them impossible to be included in the current analysis. Other studies report old age to be as another predominant factor of COVID-19 infection.…”

Racial and geographic disparities in influenza vaccination in the U.S. among individuals with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: Renewed importance in the setting of COVID-19

“…The importance of influenza vaccination is well established both for the general population, and especially among patients with prior ASCVD who may benefit from it for secondary prevention [6] . There are known racial disparities in both diagnosis and treatment of ASCVD [12] , [13] , [14] . We also found that there may be similar disparities in receiving a flu vaccine whereby Blacks and Hispanics with ASCVD were less likely to receive a flu vaccine compared to Whites.…”

Will prenatal exposure to SARS-CoV-2 define a birth cohort with accelerated aging in the century ahead?

“…40 Socioeconomic status and educational status of the mother and child should also be assessed, as causes of adverse outcomes can be social as well as biological. Additionally, COVID-19 infection appears to be more common and severe in racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. 41 Moreover, preexisting conditions increase the severity of COVID-19 infection, which may have implications for transmission and neonatal outcomes. Our recommendations are oriented toward the United States as the situation may differ in low-and middle-income settings.…”